جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه "resistance literature" در نشریات گروه "ادبیات و زبان ها"

The narrative mode of Passages, a novel by Fatin Al-Murr, employs the focalization to establish the point of view presented in the story. This technique focuses on who observes the story rather than who narrates it. Gérard Genette identifies three levels of focalization: zero, internal, and exterior. In Passages focalization is utilized to depict two seemingly contradictory identities through the perspectives of two narrators (Darine and Najwa). Each character embodies a unique identity shaped by the Israeli occupation, representing the Palestinian Christian and Muslim communities in Lebanon and the refugee camps, as well as the Palestinian Muslim population. This study adopts a descriptive-analytical approach based on Gerard Genette's theory of focalization to examine the author's style in Passages and its portrayal of the reality of the Arab world during the Israeli occupation. This study identifies the presence of all three focalization patterns, with the perspectives of Darine and Najwa serving as primary vehicles for storytelling. The introspective narrative within the novel is predominantly channeled through Najwa's perspective, characterized by her profound understanding of the Palestinian conflict. Through a series of exchanged letters, Najwa endeavors to enlighten her Christian friend about the brutal massacres and injustices unfolding in Palestine.

In recent years, concurrent with the culmination of injustice and systematic discrimination in Afghanistan, the poetry of justice-seeking has also soared. Especially when a group of citizens were deprived of their rights due to the change in the direction of the "Totap" project, there were massive demonstrations in Kabul and other cities of Afghanistan. The second demonstration in May, 2015 in Kabul, was subjected to suicide attacks due to the negligence of the government, and 87 elites and educated people were martyred and many were injured. The poetry collections "Demands Fresh Blood from Us Everyday", "Scream for the Light" and "Verses of Light" were compiled and published immediately after the second bloody event of May. There are more than 140 poets, living in Afghanistan or abroad, whose poems have been collected in these collections. In addition to these poets, the poems of some Persian poets and an American poet have also been included in these collections.

The comparison between Iranian and Arabic literature, due to the social and cultural commonalities of the two nations, adds new achievements to the comparative literature. In the analysis of the aesthetics of poetry, the elements of surface structure and deep structure, and the harmony between them play an important role. These elements, however, are not completely correct and unchanged. It is necessary to observe beauty elements, but not enough, because part of the beauty of the poem depends on the extent to which they are employed, and the other part depends on the elements that are felt; how beautiful these works are, however, is a matter of taste as well and cannot be determined only by relying on rhetorical criteria in those poems. Hamed Askari (born 1361) is an Iranian lyricist and poet. His poetry books "A Tale of  Toranj and Baluch", "The Lady as You Are", "Dark Blue", "Fairy of the Night: a  Book of Songs" have been published so far. Ali Al-Jalavi is also a contemporary Bahraini poet and writer. He turned to poetry from the age of fourteen, and his poetry appeared as revolutionary, as a youth. During his teenage years, he joined Bahraini freedom circles and became acquainted with politics. For the first time at the age of seventeen, he criticized the situation in the country and was arrested for it. In 1995, he was arrested for the second time and was sentenced  to prison till 1998.

Resistance literature is considered to be an important factor in the history of Iran, and has played an important role in preserving the homeland and protecting it. When it is connected with the element of imprisonment, the sacrifice, tolerance and courage of the warriors are manifested more vividly and the audiences’ belief  in them is strnghtened. Habsiyeh, or prison literature, which includes the thoughts and feelings of the prisoners, plays an important role in describing the post-war experiences. In this study, the memoirs of Seyyed Naser Hosseinipour in the captivity of the Baathist forces are examined. Hosseinipour has focused his attention on imprisonment and captivity in the novel "The Leg Left Behind". In the examination of the level of thought in the novel seven components were observed:1) Physical torture including using a club and cable, looking at the sun, sitting on hot ground, hanging from the ceiling, electric chair, thirst, not treating the wounds. 2) Mental torture including: playing songs, forming queues for counting the prisoners, the state of toilets and bathing, the state of food, the presence of lice. 3) The internal state of prisoners including: sadness, loneliness, longing, hopelessness, worry, fear, complaint, patience and resistance, apology, maintaining ones’ pride, weakening of spirit for disease and lack of health, threats, humiliation. 4) humor and creativity in captivity 5)The presence of spies in captivity 6)Religious beliefs and celebrations in prison 7)Entertainment devices in captivity

Bakhtin paved the way for a new conceptual approach in the novel by introducing the two concepts of "conversational logic" or "dialogue" and "polyphony". Accordingly, the main issue of the present study is to assess the position of the "other" and polyphony in Iranian sustainability novels whose main characters and authors are women, and to what extent the works have approached polyphony by observing the boundaries of neutrality? In the body of the article, which was conducted on the basis of a descriptive-analytical method, Bakhtin's views about the presence of "another" in the text with his two key concepts (dialogue and polyphony) are described and studied in the novels in question, prior to anything. As the results of the study have indicated, these novels cause acquaintance and cognition of "other", and regocnize the thoughts and ideas of the characters in accordance with the Heroes. Polyphony helps the characters have a chance to speak and introduce themselves to the readers. Variety of perspective in the considered novels has been emerged as a narrator shifts within several consecutive chapters and the narrator changes. This narrative method exists in the forms of monophonic (first person), monologue (hadith of the soul), first person observer, and third person. What is called "another" or polyphony in war novels is the presence of the enemy. Precisely, the presence of "another" in the studied novels is only transient and independent of conversations.

One of the most important theories of Bakhtin is dialogism and polyphony, which happens to be in close connection with each other. Polyphony refers to the equal distribution of sounds in a text. By introducing the two concepts of "conversational logic" and "polyphony" in the book entitled as; the Problems of Dostoyevsky's Literary Theory, Bakhtin laid the foundation for the invention of a new concept called intertextuality by Julia Kristeva.

Examining the personality of women and their issues is one of the important topics of the fiction literature of the Holy Defense. Although these people were mostly active behind the fronts, their role is not only not less than men, but in some cases it has been more when it comes to the fields of service and support. The present research was carried out using a descriptive and analytical method via targeting the statistical population of the works of female writers in the “holy defense” literature. Such works of art have been studied and analyzed based on Bakhtin's theory of polyphony.

Having investigations over the personality of women and their issues is one of the prominent topics of the fiction literature of the Holy Defense. Although these people were mostly active behind the fronts; But in the field of service and support, their role is not only not less than men, but in some cases it has been more. The selected novels have been studied and analyzed based on Bakhtin's theory of polyphony. Changing the dialogues between the characters of these stories has led to a sufficient understanding of the characters. What is evident in these stories is the different characters and their verbal communication. The current research intends to use Bakhtin's theory of polyphony to deal with the following topics, such as investigating the people's personality, ideology and thoughts.

Integrating the monologue method, Carnivalesque, monotony, and allowing the other (enemy) to express their theories (especially the novel, I am alive), the female characters (Comprisign a wide range from the author to the female protagonist in the novels) using the monologue method, have portrayed a face of the righteousness of the holy defense. Polyphony, in these novels, has led to the recognition of the "other". The presence of this "other person" in the studied novels, except the novel I am alive and “Da”, which, in some scenes, is done as a direct conversation with the enemy, is only in passing and without conversations. In general, it can be cocluded that, despite the presence of different voices and different viewpoints, as "the other", the novels are still far from the characteristic of dialogism from Bakhtin's point of view. Because, due to his democratic belief, he does not accept any superiority of one voice over another and he believes that all voices must be heard at the same level

This research examines the role and methods of linguistic elements in the display of self-identity and self-demarcation with others in the poetry of Samih Al-Qassim in the book "Demi ala Kafi". "Demi ala Kefi" is a collection of Samih's steadfast poems in which he has tried to defend his homeland and countrymen through poetry; A homeland whose land is the ancestral heritage of a nation and has been occupied by foreigners due to the weakness or betrayal of the leaders of the time. In this work, the poet sees poetry as a weapon that should be used to defend the oppressed and fight against the oppressor. The upcoming research tries to analyze and examine the way of demarcation between self and other in this work by examining the literary and linguistic methods used in the poem. And to answer the question of how literary and linguistic elements have played a role in demarcating insider and outsider? And it comes to the conclusion that methods such as repetition and rotation of the pronoun have played an essential role in introducing the Palestinian identity and creating a boundary between oneself and the other.

The collection of stories from War City, which was discussed in this research, won the title of the best book of the year of Holy Defense (2003) and the first place for the best book in 20 years of writing stories of Holy Defense. In this research, the short stories in this collection, which reflect the events of the war days and to some extent the conditions of the warriors, have been discussed from a narrative perspective and analyzed for content. With a narratological view emphasizing the structure of the narrative, he tries to delve beneath the surface and structure of the text to reach its inner layers. The narratological analysis of the collection of stories in War City shows that Ahmadzadeh, in this work, uses techniques and makes intelligent choices of point of view to expose the reader to the challenges of war from a new perspective each time. In fact, Ahmadzadeh has demonstrated his skill and success by opting to rarely use the second person point of view in narrating three stories from this collection. The analysis of the content of this work also revealed that the author occasionally incorporated unique and diverse themes from resistance literature, including showing empathy towards the enemy's families and discussing war tactics in the short story. This research is based on library research and descriptive analytical methods.

Resistance literature serves as a reflection of the embodiment of truth and a wellspring of enlightenment. Resistance poetry can be likened to a poem with two guiding principles: "justice and freedom," while simultaneously acting as a guardian of human dignity (Ismaili, 2003: 79). The literary works of any nation narrate the unfolding events within that nation, and poets and writers bear a profound responsibility in this regard. Their duty is to depict and immortalize the occurrences transpiring in their society. These individuals are conscious of their role in shaping their society's destiny and do not merely stand by as passive observers. Among these dedicated poets is Abbas Moshfegh Kashani. Abbas Keymanesh, born in 1925 and known as "Moshfegh," is a prominent figure in contemporary sonnet composition. His style is influenced by Iraqi traditions, occasionally infused with elements of Indian style. Moshfegh Kashani, for the most part, adheres to the tenets of classical poetry, except for adapting his content to align with religious and revolutionary ideals (Kakaei, 2006: 36). Moshfegh Kashani, alongside other poets who sought innovation within the confines of traditional Persian poetry during this era, maintains the mental framework of their sonnets consistent with conventional sonnet structures. Moshfegh is notably recognized for composing numerous poems after the commencement of the imposed war, focusing on themes such as the holy defense, martyrdom, sacrifice, and the heroic exploits of warriors (Beigi Habibabadi, 2003: 1105). Given that Sirang's poetry collection encompasses Moshfegh Kashani's resolute poetry, featuring verses dedicated to revolution, religious figures, martyrdom, the holy defense, liberated individuals, and veterans, among others, this research centers its analysis on this anthology.

One way to gain knowledge on the basics of resistance culture and the ways of teaching these principles is to conduct scientific studies in the field of popular culture and literature. Regarding the components of resistance literature, such as praising the Karbala incident, defending the homeland, praising heroes and martyrs, fighting against oppression, and so on in the Bakhtiari and Boyer Ahmadi epic poems, the present study is aimed towards analyzing resistance patterns as one of the components of resistance literature in the Bakhtiari and Boyer Ahmadi epic poems. There are mythical persona (Ki Khosro, Bahram, Arash Kamangir, etc.), epic characters (Rostam, Siavash, etc.) and historical characters (Ariobarzen and...) in the Bakhtiari and Boyer Ahmadi epic poems that can instantiate the resistance patterns. The data for the present study come from library resources. Also, the researchers employed qualitative method to analyse data.  The analyses suggest that it can be said that the role models to stimulate and encourage the fighters in the battlefields in the epic poems of Bakhtiari and Boyer Ahmadi are mostly mythological and epic characters that are, in one way or another, borrowed from Ferdowsi's Shahnameh. In addition, in the majority of poems, there is a deep connection between mythical and historical characters and Bakhtiari and Boyer Ahmadi ethnic heroes. This, in fact, inspires the spirit of victory and role model derived from Iranian mythology

The scientific pathology of resistance literature research is one of the necessities of this field, which can be useful in identifying scientific problems and weaknesses and achieving research-oriented solutions and policies in this field.The research method of this study was exploratory. Information was collected through in-depth semi-structured interviews with eleven professors and experts, and thematic analysis method and MaxQuda software were used to analyze them.The categories extracted from the perspective of the interviewees about problem analysis in resistance literature include: separation of question and problem in scientific researches; The conflict between the mind and the object as the origin of the formation of the problem; Formation of the problem free from bias and resistance; authenticating the scientific method; Updating issues in the field of resistance literature and in-depth insight into them.   Damages in the field of research in two levels of scientific and research damages; And structural and organizational damages were investigated.To solve the problems at both levels, solutions were presented by the interviewees, among which the following can be mentioned:Determining policies, guidelines, and road map; Identifying strengths and weaknesses, opportunities and threats through fundamental research and situational assessment; Forming an information bank and networking of activists and those interested in this field; Expanding national and international communication by holding a conference.

Since the beginning of the Iran-Iraq war, three generations of writers have written novels on the resistance. In these novels, in line with the changes that have taken place in the social, cultural and political arenas of the society, one can observe a gradual transformation and the emergence of new types of discourse. Ebrahim Hasanbeigi's novel Ashkaneh is one of the works in the resistance literature written during two decades after the war with an almost different approach compared to previous works. An important theme highlighted in this work is the transformation in macro-structures and ideals after the war. Through a descriptive-analytical method, this study seeks to examine the discourse in the novel Ashkaneh based on Fairclough's critical approach and to answer the question ‘Does the discourse of the story serve to maintain the ideological power relations in the layers of the social structure or does it aim to weaken and transform it?’. The findings of the research indicate that the author of the novel presents the developments caused by the dominance of construction discourse at the social, cultural and economic levels of the post-war society and highlights the changes that have occurred in the identity of this period. Thereby, it criticizes the semantic system that dominates the era of construction and weakens the existing power relations in the layers of the social structure in this period.

The Islamic Republic of Iran and Palestine have resisted internal and external oppression and arrogance throughout their history full of jihad and struggle. Intellectuals of these two societies demonstrated their protest against the current political conditions at the time, coinciding with the outbreak of the two world wars, and portrayed the political conditions, poverty, deprivation, the thugs of darkness, and other topics by singing poetry. The literature of resistance had an important role in this field. In order for the poet to portray the painful and distressing conditions of society in the literature of resistance, he tends to a special subject field and aims to stir up the spirit of struggle and resistance among people. Mahmoud Darwish and Tahereh Sfarzadeh sang wonderful verses on resistance, which led to the emergence of poetic commonalities in their poems. The research deals with the emergence of resistance in its various forms, as the two poets chanted, relying on the comparative approach. The result indicates that the chants of the two poets were the scene of the emergence of common contents such as the call for peace, identity, patriotic fervor, martyrdom, and other religious and patriotic contents that make the poets enthusiastic about it.

Abstract
Persian poetry is one of the most important tools for making people aware of their destiny and encouraging them to be resistant, especially to domestic tyranny and foreign colonialism. The impact of poetry on the world of young adults, who are in the critical period of growth and maturity, is undeniable. One of the types of literature that plays a significant role in shaping the character and identity of young adults is poetry. Apart form  the description of the war and the themes and components related to it such national unity to face the enemy, sacrifice, awareness, resistance, bravery of the warriors and praise for martyrs, Iranian young adults’ resistance poetry describes post-war issues and themes such as waiting for the return of prisoners, the patient life of veterans and captives and their families, and especially pacifism. Using a descriptive-analytical method, this article deals with the content, aesthetic, and linguistic analysis of “Mesle Zohr-e Ashura” (“Like the Afternoon of Ashura”), a collection of poems by Hamid Honarjo. The results of this research show that since this collection is related to the post-war period, the poet expresses themes such as martyrs and martyrdom, the bombing of cities and the martyrdom of mothers and children, as well as remembering martyrs, fighters and veterans. In the aesthetic part, this kind of poetry has taken steps to describe features of resistance in young adults’ poetry using literary devices and innovation, often with tangible and sensual imagery. In the linguistic analysis, words and compounds are examined, which shows compounds are used more than words, because it is much easier for teenagers to convey their intended meaning in one sentence.

Resistance literature is an important genre of literature that includes poetry, fiction, drama, and so on. Resistance literature communicates themes on human reactions to circumstances arising in their sociopolitical life, prompting them to take a stand.The present study aims to introduce and evaluate components in the history of Kerman literature during the Qajar era, concurrent with the start of the Constitutional Revolution, based on the concepts and definitions of resistance literature and centered on the thoughts and ideas of Mirza Agha Khan Kermani as one of its most famous advocates. Given his life and works, he can be called a poet, author, historian, intellectual, militant, and a political, social, and literary critic and journalist. Thus, he is a prominent literary, political, and social polymath.Mirza Agha Khan’s main line of thought and method in his numerous works express a particular policy line, struggle, and resistance on the path of great ideals such as freedom, raising awareness, anti-authoritarianism, nationalism, and political, social, and literary commitment. Although certain criticism can be directed at some of his thoughts, ideas, and method of expression, the significance of his honest articulation and militant spirit based on his perception of the cultural, social, and political conditions that his time required of him cannot be disregarded. In this context, he can be placed among the prominent authors of resistance literature in the contemporary era.A range of concepts and components pertaining to resistance literature can be found in the works of Mirza Agha Khan Kermani. Of these, the three components of committed literature, nationalism, and anti-authoritarianism feature on the higher echelonsinhis works as the most significant components of resistance. Hence, the main research question is asked as follows:What are the components of resistance literature in the works of Mirza Agha Khan Kermani?To answer the main question, three secondary questions also arise, as follows:How didcommitted literature emerge in the works of Mirza Agha Khan Kermani?What position does nationalism hold in the works of Mirza Agha Khan Kermani?What position does anti-authoritarianism hold in the works of Mirza Agha Khan Kermani?

The descriptive-analytical method has been used to conduct this theoretical research. Data was collected using the library research method and analyzed qualitatively. The entire collection of poetry and prose by Mirza Agha Khan Kermani used in this research is available in print and manuscript.

 3.1. Committed literature Apart from his sociopolitical personality and persistent struggles against Qajar rule, Mirza Agha Khan Kermani is also a poet and literary critic. Ketab-e Rezvan (Rezvan's Book) and the verse epic Nāmeh-ye Bāstān [Letter of Antiquity] provided him with an exclusive literary status among the authors and poets of the constitutional era. The mission of the pen from the viewpoint of Mirza Agha Khan goes beyond morality and self-refinement. Inspired by Seyed Jamal Eddin Asadabadi who sees underdeveloped countries as being more in need of their penmen, Mirza Agha Khan names the inability to provide their primary needs as one of the reasons for their underdevelopment. He believes that literature is on a mission and must share in the happiness and dejection of nations. He conducts a comparison on this subject between the West and Iran and states that Westerners have perfected poetry while Iranians have used it as a tool for begging, exaggeration, idle talk, and nonsensical panegyrics and satire. 3.2. Patriotism and nationalism Another important aspect in the dialectic of Mirza Agha Khan Kermani is patriotism and nationalism. This is a significant manifestation of committed literature in his works. His boundless love for Iran and everything Iranian, as well as his abhorrence for anything that, in his view, endangers the homeland can be seen in every aspect of his thinking. Mirza Agha Khan can be seen as a passionate nationalist who endeavors to revive Iran’s lost glory based on surviving documents from its past. By relying on the new ideas of his time about factors leading to progress and the backwardness of a nation, he sought a culprit to justify the deplorable state of Iran in those days. His love for Iran is so strong that he has managed to exaggerate the causes of its backwardness and its culprits. But none of this can negate his pure compassion and interest in Iran and Iranians. 3.3. Anti-authoritarianism Mirza Agha Khan has defined words and concepts such as “despot”, “revolution”, and “patriot” in his works to mention the concepts of oppression, authoritarianism, and tyrant. Although these definitions are similar to those at the beginning of the book Maktubat by Mirza Fatali Akhundzadeh, they are still a sign of his attention and familiarity with such topics. The main criticism by Mirza Agha Khan of authoritarian regimes is that kings do not know the real meaning of governance and are oblivious to global developments in this respect. He believes that the perception of Iranian rulers of the politics of their day is superficial and unrealistic.

Committed literature, nationalism, and anti-authoritarianism are some of the most important aspects of resistance literature which can be seen in the works of Mirza Agha Khan Kermani. Aside from being one of the main designers of constitutional literature in Iran as a progressive and critical literature bearing the exclusive features of resistance literature, Mirza Agha Khan Kermani has always believed in the mission of the pen and literature in raising awareness in society and has used his pen as a tool for militancy. By considering the differences between the patriotism and nationalism found in the works of Mirza Agha Khan Kermani, it must also be noted that he was in love with Iran and everything Iranian. He is among the first architects of Iranian identity and nationality in the new era and his nationalism is evident in his various works. Anti-authoritarianism must be considered the most important component of resistance in the works of Mirza Agha Khan Kermani. His attention to words and expressions such as despot, revolution, and patriot indicate his familiarity and sensitivity towards these topics. In his view, all the Iranian governments from the beginning of history, even the governments of ancient Iran, were despots and authoritarians, and none have ever thought that there exists another way to govern apart from
this method.

Resistance literature is rooted in history. Wherever there is oppression, literature of resistance has sprouted in the form of one of the literary types. In Iran, this literature has always received attention, and, especially after the victory of the Islamic Revolution in 1357, and during the eight-year war with the neighboring country, it increased and was favored by Iranians.Although prison literature, as a type of the subset of resistance literature, ows part of its existence  to the prisons of the Pahlavi regime, its colorful and main part was born in the prisons of Iraq. The letters exchanged between Iranian war-prisoners and their families are part of this captivity literature.For Iranian prisoners, who were in captivity from two to ten years, there was no other way of communication than the two special letters delivered to them at the beginning or end of each month, or sometimes every two to three months. Once given to them. Obviously, in those few pages, a prisoner had to share important information with his family and write about his situation, and, in return, the family of the prisoner had to write back about the life of the family, the city and the country, and their friends to reduce the pain of his exile. In such limited and difficult conditions, and in such a small space of writing, half of which should be left empty for the recipient of the letter, a stream of literature-in-captivity was formed and those few pages were able to record a large part of prison-literature."From the beginning of 1359, when the first letters of Iranian prisoners of the Iran-Iraq war were received by their families, until August 1369, when the great exchange of prisoners began, within these ten years, that is, from the beginning of the war to the great freedom, we in the Office of the Missing Soldiers and Prisoners of War, exchanged about six million letters from both sides, and this was when almost half of our 40,000 prisoners were registered, and we learned about the presence of the rest of the prisoners in captivity only when they were released. And these letters were exchanged under the strictest limitations and different excuses of the Iraqis" (Afraz, 2019).The history of letter writing in Iran dates back to the Achaemenid period; at that time, words were written in cuneiform on the tanned skin of animals, and the skin was given to a chapar (mailman/messenger) to carry it to its destination. Of course, in the BCE history, writing was not used except in government offices and courts. 1800 years ago, when paper was made by the Chinese, letter writing on paper and book writing appeared, and letter writing became much easier (cf.: Amini, 1379: 43). In the history of Herodotus it is stated: "Harpak wrote a letter to Cyrus and encouraged him to fight with Astyaks (Korush's maternal grandfather) and in order for the letter to easily pass through the Medes and reach Persia, Harpak put it in the belly of a rabbit. He hid it and a letter carrier in hunter's clothes was able to deliver it to Cyrus. In the Torah, a letter and a decree from Cyrus about rebuilding the building of Jerusalem - which was destroyed by the Chaldean victory - is mentioned" (ibid.).The oldest work in Pahlavi language on the art of corresponndence is the small letter "Ayin Nama-Novisi". "This book contains special examples of correspondence in various cases and to various people. This text has forty-five paragraphs, each of which presents different methods in letter writing style. The first paragraph is an introduction in the description of those to whom the letter is written. In other paragraphs, the way of writing different types of praise, address, heading and title of a letter, sympathy and consolation, and how to start and finish a letter are mentioned (Mehdizadeh, 2012).

In 1387, the author of the present study took part in the national plan for collecting letters from Iranian ex-prisoners of war carried out by the Office of Resistance Literature and Art in Hozeh Honari, and collected more than 1500 letters from Kerman province; nearly 8000 letters by prisoners from other provinces was also collected and effort was made to determine those letters with coded messeges. The research method in this study is mainly based on analyzing collected letters, and memoirs of the ex-prisoners.

The contents expressed in the prisoners' letters were important and sometimes included war secrets, that is why it was tried to express these contents in code and in literary language, and these codes were revealed only between the writer and the reader.One type of literary arrangement that the writers of letters have used a lot to express secret content was simile, because the simile was understood only by the reader and the writer, and others did not know about it.Another type of literary figure that is used to express secret content in prisoners' letters is metaphor. Metaphor has been defined as "the use of a word in its non-real meaning along with the interest of similarity between the real and figurative meaning and the analogy that prevents the will of the real meaning. In fact, metaphor is a type of lexical permission whose interest is similarity, and sometimes it is interpreted as "metaphorical permission". For example, someone who has seen a brave man in school says “I saw a lion in school.” Lion hasbeen used in the meaning of a brave man, and the speaker actually has seen a similarity between the vehicl (lion) and its tenor (brave man), and has established communication (Hashmi, 2011: 1/258).Sometimes, in the structure of some letters, especially coded letters, an equivoque was used to express the purpose; the writers could use it, hidden from the eyes of the enemy, to explain things to their audience in a coded manner in order for the secret content about the war to be protected and the desired messages to be transmitted easily. Equivoque is the use a word with more than one meaning in poetry and prose, some of whose meanings are close to the mind, and some are detached.In captivity, to have a photo of Imam Khomeini or the officials of the Islamic Republic was considered as a crime. Correspondence with these people also had bad consequences for the prisoner, and if the enemy noticed a letter written by a prisoner, his first impression was that the writer of the letter was probably a prominent soldier who had been hiding his rank. Therefore, some prisoners accepted the risk and started writing letters with tricks such as using code words instead of the name of the official. During the years of captivity, some of the prisoners, as mentioned, wrote letters to the officials of the Islamic Republic and received answers. Imam Khomeini, may God bless him and grant him peace, Mr. Khamenei, Rafsanjani, Meshkini and some other officials were among the people who answered the letters of the prisoners, and these answers encouraged and created morale among the prisoners.One of the most important issues that had to be expressed in code language was the communication of war news and secrets. If these news were revealed to the enemy, it would result in the worst torture for the prisoners, and on the other hand, it would cause their army's plan to be turned upside down and lead to their defeat.

Coded letters showed that: 1. Literary language can be most useful in expressing content and news when necessary. 2. Forcing prisoners to write coded letters reveals the dire conditions of captivity and the filth of the Baathist regime and the hypocrites. 3. In secret letters, simile has been used the most because of its simplicity and its familiarity for the author and the reader, and equivoque has had the least use in these types of letters due to its ambiguity for the reader. 4. The simplicity and intimacy of the letters and the fact that most of them are devoid of literary language indicate the level of literacy of the letter writers at the high school level. 5. Most of the topics and content of the encrypted letters followed the same line, including issues such as politics, mentioning the names of the officials of the army, Basij and Sepah, family news, war secrets, and the pains of exile.The most repeated subject was mentioning the names of the officials of the Islamic Republic, especially Imam Khomeini. 6. Much of the sensitive content of the news and war secrets has been conveyed through pun, which shows the utmost cleverness of the Iranian prisoners. Contrary to the opinnion of some people who interpret literature based only on the scale of pleasure, these could confuirm the practicality of literature.

Social poetry mostly deals with expressing the problems, needs, and daily life issues of the society. This kind of poetry is a result of the direct connection between the poet and the society; the poet tries to reflect the objective events and realities of their own society through it. Contemporary Arabic and Persian poetry, alongside other topics, mostly addresses the pains and sufferings of the people. Mahmoud Darwish and Qahar Asi, like other contemporary poets, have been influenced by the political and social circumstances of their time. The tyranny of the rulers in these two countries has obliged these poets to fulfill their social mission effectively. Although social poetry is a subset of poetry of sustainability, as it has assigned a significant portion of their poems to itself. It has been subject to independent research, analysis, and scrutiny to reveal the perspectives and views of these two poets. The findings show that the most important social themes in the poems of these two poets consist of: sympathy with people, the pain and suffering of war refugees, exile, hope for the future, and the promise of peace. Furthermore, the political events in their homeland and the difference in the environment have resulted in a difference in their perspectives.

 It is a pure descriptive study in which the documentation tool has been used to collect the data. The content was organized using a descriptive-analytic method based on the American school framework for comparative studies. The researchers also apply a quantitative research approach to explain and evaluate synaesthesia in the abovementioned works.

Critics consider poetry to have various functions, ranging from providing pleasure to describing and explaining phenomena in the world of existence, cultivating and refining ethics, and promoting values. Of course, it should not be overlooked that each of these functions can vary depending on the conditions of time, place, literary type, and the poet's perspective. However, one of the most important functions and responsibilities of poetry is its social function because social events and movements are among the important human issues that have an inseparable connection with the spirit and psyche of human beings. When poetry becomes intertwined with the life of the people in society, it attracts more attention and takes literary works to the edge of immortality. Social events are not always the same, so their reflection in literature and poetry is always different. Different literary forms are also the result of social and cultural conditions, and poetry is a suitable medium for reflecting these events among various literary types.Badr Shaker al-Siyab, a modernist Arab poet, sees poetry as having a social purpose and believes that poets and artists have a great responsibility to their society and the people, which they must fulfill in the best way possible and highlight the pains and desires of their fellow citizens" (Rajaei, 2009: 164).Khalil Matran, one of the pioneer poets of the romanticism literary trend, also believes that every nation makes its own tyrants and oppressors, the silence of the people in the face of oppression and social injustices cause oppression to continue. In dealing with social issues and fighting against oppression, he directly mentions the names of oppressive rulers (Mir Qadri, 2006: 412).Nazik Al-Malaika who is one of the pioneers of realism and the founders of new poetry, believes: "All the visual, auditory and mental emotions a person are formed in society, and to be one of the citizens of this society, he cannot escape from the characteristics that govern it, and such a person whether you like it or not, you have to portray your society. Consquently, community and sociability are natural characteristics of every person, which cannot be considered as a shirt that a person can take off whenever he wants, but in his blood, thoughts and nerves (Al-Malaika, 1962: 264).Ehsan Abbas is one of the Arabic critics who took the social aspects of the poetry in his consideration and believes that the poet's relationship with society takes shape in three distinct ways:a) The social position of poetry in terms of its connection to economic factors, social environment, and values that shape or manifest in the poet's work.b) The social theme or objective that the poet strives to achieve.c) The social impact of poetry throughits reliance on the audience, which can be small and limited or large and extensive (Abbas, 2009: 137).Mikhail Naimeh believes that “Poetry is not merely a combination, coordination, and harmonization of words, rhymes, and rhythms, nor is it simply a creative force. Poetry is the song of the nightingale, the cooing of the dove, the sound of trickling water, and the roar of thunder. It is the smile of a child and the tears of a mother who has lost her child. Poetry has accompanied humans since the beginning of creation and will stay with them from childhood to the moment of death. Poetry is familiar to broken hearts devoid of joy and excitement in this world, as well as to hearts full of sophisticated pleasures and desires” (Naimeh, 1998: 91).The contemporary world has witnessed tremendous changes in human society. These developments are prominently revealed in the field of human relations and affect poetry. Contemporary poetry reflects human experiences. "Today's poet is no longer the old poet who sits on the platform of oratory, exhortation and wisdom, but comes among the people and ranks among them, and shares his lived experience in his poetry with them (Ziyaadini, 1389: 36-37). Therefore, the most important task of contemporary poetry is to reflect the social and human realities of a society, and it is a powerful and influential tool for expressing new ideas that sprout in the mind of the poet. By utilizing the power of expression and the companionship of words, poets can highlight the existing realities in society. On the other hand, human issues and themes have become increasingly complex in human society, and poets consider it their responsibilities to reflect these human realities and strive to achieve this primary and great goal. In this regard, we have witnessed the emergence of poets in two countries, "Palestine and Afghanistan", who have taken steps towards social activism and struggle with a humanistic and social approach. Among all these poets, Mahmoud Darwish and Qahhar Aasi have shone brightly with almost similar destinies in defending the human values of their homeland and people.In this research, among the human themes of these two poets, the components of their social poetry, which have more critical and corrective content, have been examined. Because the analysis of such poetry expresses common pains on the one hand, and clarifies the poet's thoughts on the social realities on the other hand.

 Based on the research conducted alongside linguistic and cultural differences, there are common social themes in the poetry of these two poets. The most important common themes are empathy with the people, reflection of the pain and sorrow of refugees, exile, hope for a brighter future, and the promise of peace. However, what distinguishes the social themes between these two poets is the political evolutions.  In Afghanistan before and after Mujahideen, Qahar Asi, like Mahmoud Darwish, always criticized the occupying forces and defended Islamic and human values in his poetry. But after the Islamic government came to power and the internal wars began, he focused more on criticizing and reflecting on their atrocities. Meanwhile Darwish in his poems, mostly screams the pain of exile and criticizes the aggressions of the occupying forces, but Qahar Asi, in addition to criticizing foreign forces, focuses more on reflecting on internal wars, reflecting on atrocities, and warning against bloodshed. Empathy with the people is also one of his important themes. Alongside his efforts to liberate the country from foreign domination, he is not insensible to the daily lives of the people. In his poetry, he calls on everyone to support and help oppressed people. The poet encourages people to defend national values, kindness, and unity. He has also reflected on the suffering and sorrow of Islamic countries in some of his poems.

The literature of sustainability is a collection of literary works whose main foundation is the resistance of the people of a country in the way of protecting the homeland and persistence against oppression and the critical and protest literature is a cry from the heart of committed poets who criticize the shortcomings and anomalies and injustices in the society With the cry of freedom and perseverance, they bring down the whip of words on the oppressors and their goal is to create a spirit of stability in the people, and they put literary words in the service of human excellence, anti-tyranny, seeking justice and the stability of the Iranian nation in the eight years of holy defense was able to open new horizons in various fields, including poetry and literature and the poets of stable literature with a sense of religion and commitment to the people; They created the opportunity to create valuable critical works for themselves With various topics and concepts such as Ashura and mystical themes, description of freedom, martyrdom, patriotism, and most importantly protest themes (objection to luxury and worldliness, wave of protest arose in the poetry of poets of the resistance, especially Qazveh In this article, the protest and critical poems of these poets are investigated in an analytical and descriptive way which has resulted in Qazvah being the leader in this field with the aim of correcting anomalies and injustices and trying to explain and educate the people.

It is no wonder that literary life has a close connection with political and social life. Literature in its various forms, such as poetry, novels, stories, etc., is considered an essential tool for the writer, through which he embodies the different aspects of the life of human society. It can be said that the Palestinian poetry of resistance is one of the most beautiful genres of literature, which plays a decisive, remarkable and continuous role in monitoring political and social events that directly affected it in its development and the renewal of its methods. The Palestinian poetry of resistance has developed in terms of style and its levels. Compositional methods are among the most important means that poets employ to express what is going on in their souls and reveal their experiences and events that they live through. It is also an important tool that reveals the aesthetics of the literary text and its artistic features. Compositional methods have become an integral part of the structure of the Palestinian poetic text of resistance, which has occupied a large part of its field. It is necessary to study this phenomenon based on what many scholars of rhetoric and researchers in the field of stylistics have said, as it has a remarkable effectiveness in the production of semantics, in addition to that it reveals the extent of the aesthetics inherent in the literary text; Where we notice that Abd al-Qaher al-Jurjani emphasized the importance of linking grammatical meanings in analyzing the literary text, as the advantage in speech lies in the meanings of grammar and linguistic structure.From this point of view, this study aims to reveal the distribution of the employed compositional styles and their patterns in the Palestinian resistance poetry and to know their artistic and rhetorical implications and phenomena. It should be noted that the researchers dealt with the methods of requesting composition in the selected poetry books, trying to identify the methods of poets using these methods and their implications in his poetry. As for the methods of non-requesting composition, we have disregarded them for the paucity of purposes related to them. We also refused to study the methods of prohibition and wishing because of their scarce presence in the collections.To achieve the objectives of the research, the study followed the descriptive-analytical and statistical approach. It also seeks to answer the following questions: - How were the structural styles distributed in the Palestinian resistance poetry? - What are the implications resulting from the structural methods employed in this type of poetry? - Why did poets use these methods in their poetry and what are the artistic features that distinguish these methods in their poems? As for the research sample, it is limited to five collections: 1- My Homeland Within the Siege by Samih Sabbagh; 2- Now take my body a sack of sand by Moein Bseiso; 3- Do not steal the sun from us by Ibrahim Al-Muqadamah; 4- It is Jerusalem by Nabila Al-Khatib; 5- The Palestinian wound and blood buds by Zainab Habash. Through a close reading of the various studies, we noticed that most of the previous studies have shed light on the rhythmic aspects represented in the rhyme and repetition of the Palestinian poetry of resistance. We did not find studies that address the structural methods and the rhetorical and artistic features that characterize the Palestinian resistance poetry through the use of compositional methods. So this study seeks to shed the lights on an aspect that the researchers did not care about. What the article concluded is that the requesting compositional styles have a varying presence in the selected poetry books. The call, the command, and the interrogative lead the percentage of presence in percentages of (39.25%), (28.12%), and (27.92%), respectively, then the negative comes after it in a small scale, with a percentage of (3.32%), regarding wishing, as compared to all other compositional styles, it has obtained a slight degree of availability of (1.36%) in the structure of Palestinian poetry. The one who meditates on the structure of the Palestinian poetic text finds that the addressee and what is related to it is considered an essential part that revolves around the Palestinian poetry of resistance. We often find that the Palestinian poet calls out to what is not specific, aiming to spread the spirit of solidity and steadfastness in various parts of the world, and he resorts to deleting the call when addressing the homeland, in order to bring his feelings closer and the distance of his love from the occupied homeland. The repetition of the call at the beginning of the poetic lines is one of the artistic methods that poets deliberately used, aiming behind it to draw the attention of the recipient and focus his attention on the importance of what follows the call. With regard to the methods of command, we find that the receiver in the methods of command is the focus of the message and the axis of the saying. The poets, by doing the command, moved away from its original connotation and idiomatic meaning to new connotations, through which they were able to reveal their goals and intentions such as guidance and advice, threats and challenges, ridicule and underestimation of the Zionist enemy, and expressing regret for what happened to the aggrieved Palestinian people, urging to continue the struggle until the siege is broken, glorifying heroism and praising the steadfastness of the fighters, etc. The interrogative style is a remarkable presence in the poetry books among the compositional methods after the call and the command and that is because of its performative ability to express the feelings and visions of the poets in different situations, and to attract the recipient to interact with the goals they seek behind the interrogation. Lamentation over the killing, destruction, and displacement of the Palestinian people is one of the most frequent indications in the poets’ poems, using various interrogative methods as an artistic phenomenon.

Sayyid Jamāl ad-Dīn Asadābādī played a major pioneering role in Islamic uprising and guiding the activities of writers at the end of nineteenth century and the beginning of twentieth century. He dedicated his utmost effort to revive Islamic thought, laying the foundations for unity among all Muslims, attracting energies to resist major colonial powers and calling for adherence of Islamic countries to common principles of Islam. Among the Islamic countries, Egypt was selected by Sayyid Jamāl ad-Dīn Asadābādī as an epicenter for his political activities because of its high standing and status as well as a source of Islamic currents after remarkable political, social and literary developments took place in this country. In the literary field, writers and scholars such as Mahmoud Sami El-Baroudi and Muhammad Abduh studied under his auspices as pioneering figures, the former for modern Arabic poetry and the latter as the father of modern Arabic prose. Sami El-Baroudi developed features in modern Arabic poetry, from which we can discern the characteristics of resistance and steadfastness, which were inspired by Sayyid Jamāl ad-Dīn Asadābādī’s reformist project. Thus, the poet emerged as an Islamic fighter challenging colonialism and its lackeys in the real world, so that he was nicknamed “Lord of Sword and Pen” because of giving pulse and freshness to modern Arabic poetry as well as his mastery of martial arts. This study intended to shed light on the extent of Sayyid Jamāl ad-Dīn Asadābādī’s impact on modern poetry and literature using El-Baroudi''''s poetry as the research subject. This research was conducted using a descriptive-analytical method and yielded the following results. The recovery and transition of modern Arabic poetry from stagnation, emotionlessness and superficiality to strength, vitality and subjectivity is not dependent only on French influence and thereby its contact with the features of European literature but rather indebted to the attempts of Islamic leaders and thinkers such as Sayyid Jamāl ad-Dīn Asadābādī and his followers in various Islamic countries from the river to the sea. Sayyid Jamāl ad-Dīn Asadābādī’s call focused on two important elements, namely preservation of Islamic authenticity and modernity. The features of this pioneering role are represented in Mahmoud Sami El-Baroudi’s poetry, including defending oppressed peoples, urging them to acquire modern sciences and to avoid idleness and humiliation, unveiling the real face of colonizers and their conspiracies, and inviting Muslim rulers to establish justice, confirming the impact of scholars and intellectuals in determining the fate of Islamic community under the influence of Sayyid Jamāl ad-Dīn Asadābādī’s thoughts.

Stylistics is a methodical science that emphasizes the understanding of the text and aims to discover the aesthetic values of the structure of the text using its lexical aspects and by comprehending the relationships between its inner components. The poem ‘Aljasar,’ by Mahmoud Darwish, includes topics such as insisting on returning to the homeland, revealing the crimes of Zionists, and remembering the tragedies Palestinians endure. This study aims to analyze and evaluate this poem based on three features of linguistic, cognitive, and literary stylistics, using a descriptive analysis method. Regarding the linguistic features, the beauties of this poem are evaluated by analyzing its music and words. Moreover, in literary analysis, elements of a poem such as metaphor, irony, and symbols are evaluated to explain the most crucial principles of the thoughts of the poet. Finally, by analyzing these features, we have concluded that the poet has aligned his poetic language with the statement of his thoughts and exploits language and literacy as means for stating his thoughts. The poet employs all capacities of the language to inspire the resistance of Palestinians against Zionists to take back their homeland.