جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه « sa’di » در نشریات گروه « ادبیات و زبان ها »

The study of thematic similarities and influence of authors on each other is necessary because it helps us to understand their works much better. This paper, through the prism of comparative folklore, deals with thematic similarities between a poem from Sa’di and a story from Boccaccio, and answers the following questions: Can we consider the thematic similarity between Sa’di’s “The Arab Horse” and Boccaccio’s “The Falcon of Federigo” as an example of similarity or influence studies? Can it be regarded as an example of “International Tales”? Is it possible that they have a common source? Because of the historical-geographical closeness and the nexus of transmission (such as the Crusades, medieval Spain, or trade with the Levantine countries) Sa’di’s “The Arab Horse” and Boccaccio’s “The Falcon of Federigo”, unlike thematic similarities, can be regarded as an example of influence studies. Also, it cannot be regarded a kind of direct adaptation. In addition, Boccaccio’s familiarity with Sa’di’s poem, and even Ufi’s anecdote, is impossible. The two stories, possibly, are two different narratives of a “tale type” because they share great similarities in themes and the order of the events, so they may have one common source. In all possibilities, an original Arab oral or written narrative of the story went to Europe by Crusaders or through the Latin, as a lingua franca, and finally influenced Boccaccio.

Among the many descriptions and explanations that have been written on Sa’di’s Bustan, Gholamhossein Yousefi’s explanation is more important than other explanations in the literary and academic community compared to other explanations. The questions are whether Yousefi’s description is completely reliable and without any problems? and does Yousefi’s description make other explanations unnecessary? In response to these questions, the author has quoted the verses in which there are problems in their explanations, and the explanation of Yousefi and some other commentators (Khaza’eli, Sudi, Naseh, Anzabinezhad and Qarabaglu). Then, in an analytical-critical way, by mentioning the reason, she criticized Yousefi’s explanation on each verse. And referring to Dehkhoda’s dictionary, she provided a meaning and explanation about the verse and word in question, which seems correct or more accurate. And wherever necessary, she has also quoted verses from Sa’di and other poets in support of her opinion. Out of the total of thirteen verses reviewed in this article, nine of the problems are related to the meaning of some words (verses: 7, 19, 46, 49, 72, 283, 2028, 2093, and 3381). Two problems are related to the pronunciation of the word and its meaning (1175 and 2020). The other two are related to the meaning of the verses. (277 and 2503).

Sa’di is a prominent ghazal-writer whose poetry has unique and distinctive stylistic characteristics. He is one of the outstanding poets in writing love ghazals. Sa’di writes his poems with absolute simplicity and distinctive eloquence. These characteristics have made him a pre-eminent poet in Persian literature. Also, he has influenced many poets such as Nasser Bokharaei, Khajouy-e Kermani, and Homam-e Tabrizi. The present study uses a descriptive-analytical method to demonstrate how Bokharaei is influenced by Sa’di by the use of similar aspects in axes such as external and marginal music, language, literary devices, literary aspects and content.

This study uses descriptive-analytical methodology and library research to analyze and interpret Sa’di’s influences on Bokharaei in the above-stated axes.

The findings of this research show that Sa’di’s and Bokharaei’s ghazals have common and similar aspects in four axes of external and marginal music, language and literary devices, literary aspects and content: in the first axis, elements such as rhythm and rhyme (in sixteen ghazals); in the second axis, the similarity of descriptive combinations and their relationship with the common love theme; in the third, literary axis, the similarity between similes and metaphors; and in the fourth, thematic axis, the similar love themes (specially the beauty of the beloved), and mystical themes and Saqi-nameh. These similarities attest to the influences of Sa’di on Bokharaei.

Bokharaei not only follows Sa’di in writing ghazals, but also regards Sa’di’s simplicity and fluency in his ghazals as a model for writing his own ghazals. It should be noted that Sa’di’s ghazals are sweeter and subtler compared to Bokharaei’s; however, the simplicity and fluency of Bokharaei’s ghazals reminds one of Sa’di’s ghazals. As a consequence, Bokharaei has managed to make his poetry enduring and eternal.

“A” or “Alif” the first letter of Persian alphabet, a major vowel in Farsi, is the first letter of Abjad numeral system which represents number one in this system. Due to its special form and position as well as some unique features, letter “Alif” is one of the most abundantly used letters by Persian poets such as Sa’di, Hafez and their contemporaries to create original themes and elegant expressions.  This article written by descriptive-analytical and library methods deals with two structures of literary application of Alif to answer the question that how do Sa'di and his contemporaries use the rhetoric and literary contents of alphabetical letters in their poetry. The first structure includes poetic images, literary contents and interpretations based on the shape and feature of “Alif”, and the second structure consists of verb and nominative phrases resulting from this letter's shape and feature. By analysis of these two structures, it can be said that Sadi has used this letter much less than the others for making poetic contents. The presented contents by Sadi from the letter Alif have social and moral aspects and delicate literary and artistic points. In these contents, Molavi emphasises on explaining the internal and rhetoric thoughts with social and moral aspects, as he is the most… poems in this case by using the letter Alif. After Molavi, Sheikh Kamal Khojandi has created many literary works by using letter Alif. Other poems are Ohadi Maraqeie, Amirkhosro Dehlavi, Hafez, Khajavi Kermani, Seif Forghani and Araghi have noticed the application of letter Alif for creating contents.  

Fakhr-al-Din Abu-Bakr b. Abu-Nasr Hawayeji was the bārbak and prime minister of Atabak Abu-Bakr b. Sa’d b. Zangi, the powerful ruler of Fars from the Salghori family. He is one of the prominent political, military, and cultural figures in the vast territory of Fars in the first half of the 7th century AH/ 13th century, and part of Sa’di’s life coincided with his period of authority. Sa’di praised Fakhr-al-Din in the preface of Golestan and perpetuated his name, and addressed him in two less-examined parts of his Kolliyāt. These two parts have always been a matter of doubt, but now, based on reliable old documents, we can clarify them. What previously Mohammad Qazvini had doubted was a short elegy in which a historical contradiction was found about the life of Fakhr-al-Din, the Salghori minister and ruler; it was not clear whether this elegy was for him or someone else. Now we can undoubtedly elucidate that Sa’di composed the elegy not for him but the death of his son. In another part of this article, important historical information about this minister is presented; some was extracted from historical sources and some taken from poets’ Divans

Sublime and subtile examples of Persian poetry such as Sa’di's fluent poems  or even Hafez's poetry, despite its complexities of the structure and hidden meanings, are usually pleasant, beautiful and completely understandable. In general the desire to discover the secret of this charm and greatness of the works of such classical authors in the East and the West has always aroused the curiosity of the researchers of language and the literary critics in the world.  They have studied this problem of poetry, since ancient times till today from various perspectives such as literary schools, rhetoric or literary theory hoping to discover perhaps the most fundamental secrets of the glory of poetic discourse. Although Saadi and Hafez have their own poetics, Hafez's, resemblance and closeness to  Sa’di is so obvious that sometimes  they have been studied together in numerous studies.  

  The literary researchers, in their poetic studies have always tried to discover the most exact points about the form and meaning in poetry with a meticulousness regard in the subtleties of poetic language. They have tried then to name, analyze and classify these unknown mysteries of its magic. At last, they have recorded the collection of their knowledge in the branches of literary knowledge and theories. Based on these foundations we have tried to find and explain some incidents of imperceptible artistic devices in the poetry of Sa’di and Hafez, analyzed from a functionalistic view. Although the most important principle of the literary and artistic view in this article is to rely on the role and function that plays the elements and techniques in achieving the main goal of the work of art. Just as in the art of painting that all the elements of design, drawing, coloring glazing and lighting must serve the ultimate goal and the main purpose of the final oeuvre, the same principle is valid in poetry. From this point of view, the most fundamental neglect in the rhetorical and literary analysis of poetry is when the mere existence of poetic forms and literary figurers of speech is considered valuable and beautiful. In addition to it the lavish and bountiful terms to naming these artistic devices create a delusion. Another important principle is remembering that   the brilliance of the artistic function of the literary devices has different degrees in different poems, but in certain cases, with a seemingly simple linguistic device, it is possible to writing the miraculous associations in the poem, which creates colorful and wonderful auras of meaning around a verse.   Review of literature Undoubtedly, the source of the ideas presented in this article, inspired and benefiting from the literary and linguistic teachings, is due to respected pioneers and promoters of literary and linguistic research in the world and Iran, and also the writers of a great number of books and articles written about the poetry of Sa’di and Hafez. They have been the source of inspiration for this article in general. The collection of this vast background, both in the field of literary theory, linguistics, and practical research, especially in the field of poetry of Sa’di and Hafez, is so extensive that it is not possible to mention even the names of a small part of them in this short space.  However, none of examples of Sa’di and Hafez's poetry and their specific functionalist analysis in the present article are taken from the writings of others, because all of them are the result of the gradual achievement of the author's years of teaching and research.  

In the present paper after explaining the generalities and theoretical principles, the following questions are discussed in detail: The method of functionalist analysis of new artistic arrangements in the poetry of Sa’di and Hafez An example of functionalist analysis of the literary industry in Hafez's poetry The necessity of searching and analyzing the hidden and invisible artistic devices in poetry An example of invisible artistic devices in Sa’di’s poetry An example of invisible artistic devices in Hafez's poetry Codification of theoretical foundations of artistic functionalist analysis in poetry Complete functionalist analysis of a short work in Sa’di’s poetry As can be seen in the above titles, first the purpose of functionalist analysis method to find invisible arrangements in the poetry of these two poets of Shiraz is explained and then some examples of them are provided. After that, the importance and necessity of this task in terms of better understanding the poetry of Sa’di and Hafez has been discussed. Then based on these topics and their poetical examples, an attempt has been made to formulate the theoretical foundations of functionalist artistic analysis. Finally as an actual example, a short poem by Sa’di has been analyzed according to these principles and general principles in order to show in practice the value and efficiency of this new method in poetry analysis.

Nowadays this idea is spreading that by using a new perspective and having a deeper understanding of the oeuvres and the ideas of ancient poets, it is possible to reveal the secrets and mysteries of pleasant and beautiful poems such as the works of Sa’di and Hafez. Theoretical discussions and practical analysis of examples presented in the present paper show that merely raising this issue is not enough to achieve tangible results and objective achievements. Achieving such a goal requires a coherent theory and the clear formulation of principles and a methodical way of studying the poems. It seems that the introductory plan based on theoretical foundations and practical examples presented in this article can potentially be applied to the poetry and even prose of other great figures of Persian literature, especially if each poet's special needs and occasions are considered.

Didactic literature is a significant part of Persian literature, with edification and ethics playing a key role in all elements of ancient literary genres.
Theological-educational literature grew and enriched in Islamic times as a result of writings influenced by the Holy Quran, hadiths, and other Islamic sources, and the bulk of these works were influenced by each other, sometimes directly, sometimes indirectly, and intertextually. In their respective artistic ways, great writers and orators have profited from these pure and transcendent principles. Most didactic and moral texts, as well as their themes, influenced Sheikh Ajal Sa'di, and he was innovative in integrating the perspectives of the past with the needs of his time. Many artists tried to imitate Sa’di's eloquence.
As one of the most effective followers of Sa’di's school of thinking, Abdullah Ravanbod Pishini has duplicated didactic and moral notions and topics that existed before Sa’di's period and then surfaced in this talented poet's works in plain language.
 


This article is based on the French school of comparative literature. The researcher's job in this school is to identify sources of inspiration and thinking, as well as subjects and ways of expression, along with schools and literary genres. Historiography, differences in language and literature, and the existence of a historical relationship between the two types of literature are the principles of the French school. This research examines the extentto which Ravanbod was influenced from Sa'di, particularly in Boustan and Golestan, and the similarities between the poems of the two orators based on the "French School of Comparative Literature," while looking at the degree to which Sa'di's wisdom is reflected in Ravanbod's Balouchi poetry.


Sa’di
The wisdom poems, which are the result of Sheikh Ajal Sa’di’s personal meditation gained from his journeys, are the most prominent poetry in Boustan and Golestan. In these two writings, Sa’di strives to describe a civilisation founded on humanism, compassion, justice, and reality. Kindness and fairness, he believes, are the most important virtues. The Qur'an, Nahj al-Balagha, ancient Iranian memoirs (Andarz-nameh), Kelileh va demneh, Qabousnameh, Nasirean Ethics (Akhlaq-i Nasiri), and the Alchemy of Happiness (Kimiay-e-Sa’adat) have all been suggested as sources and foundations for Sa’di's moral point of view. Many scientific theories have affected him as a result of his many trips and education in Baghdad's Mustansiriyah and Nezamiyeh; yet, the wisdom and ideas of ancient Iran and Islamic wisdom form the foundation of his thoughts.
Ravanbod
In addition to wisdom, law, philosophy, theology, and religious sciences, Maulana Mohammad Abdullah Ravanbod Pishini (1926-1988) possessed a comprehensive command of literary sciences such as the science of prose, rhyme, innovation, and expressiveness, which he considered essential for every poet. He is the most well-known contemporary poet in Iran's Baluchistan province.
Despite his wide understanding of Persian, Arabic, Urdu, and Baluchi literature, his manner of speech is basic and unpretentious. Ravanbod has been dubbed "Sa’di of Balochistan" by several critics and fans of his poetry. This term is usually attributed to him because his poetry influences Baluchi literature and language, as well as its simplicity.
Ravanbod's Baluchi poems are the most essential, brilliant, and numerous of his poems. Baluchi poetry is written in the manner of traditional and classical Baluchi poetry or in the genres of Qasideh (ode), Qazal (lyric), and Mosammat, which are influenced by Persian poetry.
The following are some of the most prevalent instructional concepts shared in the works of the two orators:God’s power, God’s transcendence of human intellect and imagination, purposefulness in the system of creation and the need to pay attention to every single being in the universe, humility due to being created out of the soil, God’s generosity to all human beings, the humans’ inability to thank God for all blessings, belief in fate and predestination, advising patience, seeking happiness in both worlds, avoiding worldy attachments, warning the harmful effects of persecution and scolding, criticizing the world, making the most of time in life, emphasizing the deeds rather than origin, highlighting the role of being a good person as an enduring legacy, not neglecting comeuppance, not belittling the enemy and sin, the immutability of the wicked principle, standing up to oppression and living and dying with honor rather than degradation and disgrace.
 


The presence of common and similar topics in the works of Sa’di and Ravanbad suggests that both poets are interested in religious and didactic writing, according to this study. Wisdom and ethics are practically present in the lives of characters and heroes in both orators' works, to the point where many educational notions and moral themes in Ravanbad's and Sa’di's writings are similar, and in some cases merge into one. If there is a little discrepancy in interpretations or words, it is due to language differences, which have the same semantic relationship and message in any case. The majority of the subjects on which the two orators have voiced and agreed are related to how one obtains both earthly and otherworldly bliss. In order to attain happiness and salvation in the two worlds, the ideal human being, in Sa’di and Ravanbad’s terms, must "give up bad and reprehensible habits and thoughts, and adorn oneself with good morals and good deeds"; that is, one must purify his existence of reprehensible attributes.
  The usage of verses and hadiths, myths and religious figures can be noticed with the use of similes and allegories in order to objectify the message in both orators’ poems. Ravanbod's poems in the Balochi language are known for their simplicity, earning him the title “Sa’di of Balochistan,” due to following Sheikh Ajal Sa’di Shirazi's statement.

Sublime and subtile examples of Persian poetry such as Sa’di's fluent poems  or even Hafez's poetry, despite its complexities of the structure and hidden meanings, are usually pleasant, beautiful and completely understandable. In general the desire to discover the secret of this charm and greatness of the works of such classical authors in the East and the West has always aroused the curiosity of the researchers of language and the literary critics in the world.  They have studied this problem of poetry, since ancient times till today from various perspectives such as literary schools, rhetoric or literary theory hoping to discover perhaps the most fundamental secrets of the glory of poetic discourse.Although Saadi and Hafez have their own poetics, Hafez's, resemblance and closeness to  Sa’di is so obvious that sometimes  they have been studied together in numerous studies. 

  The literary researchers, in their poetic studies have always tried to discover the most exact points about the form and meaning in poetry with a meticulousness regard in the subtleties of poetic language. They have tried then to name, analyze and classify these unknown mysteries of its magic. At last, they have recorded the collection of their knowledge in the branches of literary knowledge and theories. Based on these foundations we have tried to find and explain some incidents of imperceptible artistic devices in the poetry of Sa’di and Hafez, analyzed from a functionalistic view.Although the most important principle of the literary and artistic view in this article is to rely on the role and function that plays the elements and techniques in achieving the main goal of the work of art. Just as in the art of painting that all the elements of design, drawing, coloring glazing and lighting must serve the ultimate goal and the main purpose of the final oeuvre, the same principle is valid in poetry. From this point of view, the most fundamental neglect in the rhetorical and literary analysis of poetry is when the mere existence of poetic forms and literary figurers of speech is considered valuable and beautiful. In addition to it the lavish and bountiful terms to naming these artistic devices create a delusion.Another important principle is remembering that   the brilliance of the artistic function of the literary devices has different degrees in different poems, but in certain cases, with a seemingly simple linguistic device, it is possible to writing the miraculous associations in the poem, which creates colorful and wonderful auras of meaning around a verse.  Review of literatureUndoubtedly, the source of the ideas presented in this article, inspired and benefiting from the literary and linguistic teachings, is due to respected pioneers and promoters of literary and linguistic research in the world and Iran, and also the writers of a great number of books and articles written about the poetry of Sa’di and Hafez. They have been the source of inspiration for this article in general. The collection of this vast background, both in the field of literary theory, linguistics, and practical research, especially in the field of poetry of Sa’di and Hafez, is so extensive that it is not possible to mention even the names of a small part of them in this short space. However, none of examples of Sa’di and Hafez's poetry and their specific functionalist analysis in the present article are taken from the writings of others, because all of them are the result of the gradual achievement of the author's years of teaching and research. 

In the present paper after explaining the generalities and theoretical principles, the following questions are discussed in detail:The method of functionalist analysis of new artistic arrangements in the poetry of Sa’di and HafezAn example of functionalist analysis of the literary industry in Hafez's poetryThe necessity of searching and analyzing the hidden and invisible artistic devices in poetryAn example of invisible artistic devices in Sa’di’s poetryAn example of invisible artistic devices in Hafez's poetryCodification of theoretical foundations of artistic functionalist analysis in poetryComplete functionalist analysis of a short work in Sa’di’s poetryAs can be seen in the above titles, first the purpose of functionalist analysis method to find invisible arrangements in the poetry of these two poets of Shiraz is explained and then some examples of them are provided. After that, the importance and necessity of this task in terms of better understanding the poetry of Sa’di and Hafez has been discussed. Then based on these topics and their poetical examples, an attempt has been made to formulate the theoretical foundations of functionalist artistic analysis. Finally as an actual example, a short poem by Sa’di has been analyzed according to these principles and general principles in order to show in practice the value and efficiency of this new method in poetry analysis.

Nowadays this idea is spreading that by using a new perspective and having a deeper understanding of the oeuvres and the ideas of ancient poets, it is possible to reveal the secrets and mysteries of pleasant and beautiful poems such as the works of Sa’di and Hafez. Theoretical discussions and practical analysis of examples presented in the present paper show that merely raising this issue is not enough to achieve tangible results and objective achievements. Achieving such a goal requires a coherent theory and the clear formulation of principles and a methodical way of studying the poems.It seems that the introductory plan based on theoretical foundations and practical examples presented in this article can potentially be applied to the poetry and even prose of other great figures of Persian literature, especially if each poet's special needs and occasions are considered.   

One of the attributes of Sa’di is his exact recognition of the Persian language and its efficiencies and the maximum use of the capacities of this language; but this exploitation is so artistic that the reader is enchanted fluidity and eloquence of speech and does not understand its artistic arrangement. One of these performances is the use of conflicting verbs in sonnets, a point that has not been thoroughly analyzed yet and enjoying the beauty of Sa'di's words doubles. This article examines the current contradiction in all Sa’di’s sonnets, and, in addition to identifying and categorizing its types and subcategories, Sa’di's subtle delights in using this array, such as bringing the opposite of a verb from several verbs that are semantically related, are used to synonymize verb, and ... along with the frequency of all the pseudo-couples that are used interchangeably in Sa'di's lyrics, along with their frequencies.

Present research is an attempt to take a semantic look at the concept “love” in the writings of two great Persian poets; Sa’di and Hafez within the framework of conceptual literary critics. Authors have been trying to find answers for these questions: What is/are difference(s) of Sa’di and Hafez’s look at the concept “love”, and what is the justification for this(these) difference(s) in the framework of literary critics? To find answers for these questions, authors have examined conceptual metaphors and similes in the investigated lyrics of these two poets. Authors have also tried to find answers for these questions: which poet’s lyrics contain more fancy? And what is/are the difference(s) of mappings which each poet has used in his lyrics due to diversity of conceptual metaphors and similes and their emotional meaning? To find answers for these questions, one percent of Sa’di’s and one percent of Hafez’s lyrics have been gathered accidentally in order to investigate conceptual metaphors and similes used in them and in order for the authors to be able to investigate the lyrics from a structuralist point of view in the first step. Investigations have shown Sa’di’s lyrics contain more fancy and he has had a positive look at “love” compared with Hafez who has had a negative look at this concept. These findings have been justified in the article.

The purpose of this research is to reach the dimensions of the meaning and theme of the first verse of Bustan, which, in understanding it, should receive the relation of the text to the social and cultural context in which it was produced. The method of this study is a critical analysis of discourse. In this approach, one of the points emphasized is that context is a social action reflecting the social inequalities in language. In this case, the legitimation or delegitimation methods are considered by Theo van Leeuwen, a discourse critical analysis theorist. In this pattern, critic tries to show how a context on study can represent a discourse legitimate or illegitimate by language satisfactory power. The main four methods of discourse legitimation are: 1- authorization; 2- moral evaluation, 3- rationalization, and 4- mythopoesis. Each method has various forms, and this research analyzes the first chapter of Bustan directly related to the governmental discourse in terms of legitimation methods. The final result of research is that, in the first chapter of Bustan, Sa’di's method for legitimation or delegimation of an issue in governmental discourse is rationalization, as it is natural according to the context audience, mainly including courtiers. The example of phrases Sa’di confirms the legitimation in governmental discourse in his lingual and literal processing is as follows: paying attention to the farmers, the passengers and businessmen for further development, confidentiality in governance affairs, accompaniment with scientists and clever, and such alike. But the world mortality and paying attention to the farmers are more frequent. Cruelty to the farmer has been more emphasized among the phrases delegitimated.

There are three distinct concepts discussed in world poetry which are the trinity of creation: God, Man, and the Universe. The mystics, including great poets, as well as classical philosophers and theosophists, have integrated the three concepts into One who is the final unique essence and the source of all Truth, the First Cause and the Last Return. The descriptions presented by Sa’di and Pope to introduce God, clearly reveal their implicated belief in the theory of ‘the unity of being’, presented first by Parmenides, the Pre-socratic philosopher. This theory is a common heritage of human theosophy and there is no difference here between the east and the west, the Antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and the Age of Reason. Sa’di and Pope, well-nourished in the tradition of divine truth and divine unity, regard man and all the universe as created by the unique and Necessary Being who is God, and view the universe as the emanation of that Supreme Being and see all the creatures as singing devotional hymns in a ‘cosmic prayer’. This philosophical consciousness of God has extended to cover the theme of ‘divine providence and wisdom’ which has been discussed all through history amongst philosophers, theologists, and poets. One can refer to Plato and Aristotle, Aquinas and Augustine, Dante and Milton as exemplars discussing the question in detail. The present paper treats the controversial theme in the works of Sa’di and Alexander Pope, and endeavors to demonstrate the essential affinities and similarities in the ideas of the two poets and to expose their differences.
 

This study is a descriptive and library-based research. It is carried out in the light of the American school of comparative literature and the dominant approach is taken from the field of comparative literature itself, namely thematic. S. S. Prawer (1925-2012), the eminent author of Comparative Literary Studies: An Introduction (1973) has identified five different overlapping areas for the exploration of themes: a) the representation of natural phenomena man’s reaction to them; or of eternal facts of human existence; or of perennial human problems and patterns of behavior b) recurring motifs, c) recurrent situations, d) the literary representation of types, e) the literary representation of named personages (99-100). The present research falls under the second category and attempts to analyze the poems of the two bards to reveal the similarities as well as the differences between the two thinkers in their justification of God’s providence.
 

In the realm of literature, many spiritual poets of the world have been preoccupied with the concept of God and His penetration into the universe. Such poets have not questioned the existence of God and have not accordingly offered any demonstration to prove His existence; they have rather offered hymns in his praise. Sa’di’s Bustan opens with an extensive list of God’s transcendent and immanent attributes followed by lofty laudations of Him. Similarly, Pope’s transcendental poem, “The Universal Prayer”, is perhaps the best example of his devotional expressions on God. It is a sublime encomium of the Almighty as the sole source, first and final cause of creation who is beyond all comprehension.
Besides such majestic praises, the main item of the theological agenda of Sa’di and Pope is, in the words of John Milton, ‘to justify the ways of God to man’ and to demonstrate how everything is right with the world. The clearest account of God’s providence and predestination of all that occurs to man has been given in the Quran in Chapter Hadid 57, verses22-23. The first verse confirms the basic idea that God has written down all that is going to happen and the second verse is a consolation for people that they should not grieve on whatever they have failed to achieve, nor should they take vain pride in the bounties bestowed on them. Sa’di, believing in the first idea, uses the second as the basic moral wisdom of why people should submit themselves to the will of God. In Persian culture, the word hekmat is used to refer to some hidden reason which exists behind all events but it is not to be seen by everyone. This is a belief that all occurrences which does not win our favor is somehow a blessing in disguise and has a justification. Sa’di has tried to convince his readers of the divine wisdom in all aspects of life, although they cannot comprehend it. He holds that: ‘It is an instance of wisdom if the Creator / Causes a servant to make the general welfare his special duty’. Many adversities, hardships, and deprivations that befall man are truly privileges unknown to him. Sa’di has tried to justify God’s providence as opposed to man’s desires and show the incongruity between God’s omniscient design and man’s parochial self-love. This idea has been repeatedly confirmed by Sa’di in a number of insightful tales.
In one qasidah which concentrates directly on preaching, Sa’di criticizes those people who find unfair faults with the design of creation and ‘deem the painter unskilled’ and clarifies that the unskillfulness comes from their own crooked observation. Accordingly, all the plans of God are rationalized in the light of divine wisdom, all seeming evil is caused by some good reason, and the contrast between good and evil is the result of man’s ill judgement and failure to understand the insight in the providence of God.
In his well-known philosophical poem An Essay on Man, Pope argues that man must accept that in the scale of creation there is a special ‘rank’ and place assigned for him. He demonstrates that whatever man regards as imperfection and misplacement is truly in the right place when considered in relation to the position of other creatures. This great fact is sufficient to justify all man considers to be inharmonious, for as Pope clarifies: “Tis a part we see, and not a whole” (line 60). Pope deems that God has ‘hidden the book of fate’ from all creatures except for the allowed pages which belong to the present time. And as God has concealed the knowledge of man from beasts, similarly, he has covered the eyes of men from the knowledge bestowed to spirits and angels. Otherwise, none could bear the plight he has to suffer on earth. The word ‘suffer’ is the key to God’s rule of hiding future events. Pope explains that if the lamb that is being taken to the slaughterhouse would know of its preeminent fate, it would be so frightened that it would flee and it would not engage itself in playing and skipping (lines 80-82). But out of God’s grace, the lamb remains unaware of its destiny and can enjoy its life to the last moment. Accordingly, Pope advises man to be wiser and not to weigh his raw opinions against God’s comprehensive design for creation, and avoid calling God’s works imperfect. For Pope, the source of all wrong judgments of man is pride and vanity. This pride ascends even to heaven and interferes with celestial dwellers, and commands that man should ascend to the level of angels and angels should achieve the status of gods. Pope enlightens man that “The first Almighty Cause / Acts not by partial, but by gen’ral laws” (line 146). Thus, if man submits himself to such a wise and omniscient providence, he will have no objection to whatever bestowed on him or whatever reserved from him and will see the truth that “Whatever is, is right” (line 294).
 

The affinities of thoughts and ideas between Sa’di and Alexander Pope originate from the similar religious faith and theological outlooks they have inherited. They have submitted themselves to the main principles and frameworks of their respective Islamic and Christian creeds which recommend the essential belief in Spirituality and the general theological ideals shared by all religions throughout history. That is why the five centuries that divide the two poets and their various social lives have not affected their basic intellectual views. The differences and incongruities, however, are generally derived from their vehicles of expression rather than the tenets and thoughts. Additionally, Sa’di is more like a preacher and story-teller, while Pope is a more like an academic teacher dedicated to logical arguments for convincing his audience. Whereas Sa’di’s ideas are scattered throughout his works, Pope has presented his outlooks in a consistent and systematic way.

Nowadays, most attributes given to the expressive mode of Sa’adi’s works all are under the shadow of the ease and abstainer of his words; attributes fluency, sweetness, rhetoric, eloquence, freshness, firmness, innovation, etc. but ease and abstainer is not the only characteristics of Sa’adi’s words. In other words, this characteristics has not been achieved in vain and some factors have been at work to create such a result. In the present study, it has been tried that using a bulk of pieces of evidnce and instances available in Kollyyat of Sa’adi, two expressive characteristics of his words, i.e. comparative antithesis and invisible repetition can be investigated in order that this result that how Sa’adi at the maximum of ease expresses his ideas that others have could not reproduce an equivalent. In other words, it can be thought that description of “ease and abstainer” is not the very sense of Sa’adi’s words, but this characteristics is its nature and has inevitably originates from his mode f expression because it has been only “structure” and “meaning” that have motivated critics and literary researchers to describe such an attribute and the aim of the present study is to find that characteristic and the invisible eloquence of Sa’adi’s words as the belongings of that characteristics.

There are some Arabic couplets in Sa’di’s Golestân logically composed according to Arabic prosody, but nearly all Persian emendators have wrongly edited them based on Persian prosody; this wrong method has caused some mistakes in their emendations. There are not however such mistakes in two Arabic translations as well as in one Turkish commentary of Golestân simply because these Arabic couplets are emendated correctly based on Arabic prosody rules. In this paper the correct editions of the couplets and also the wrong editions are introduced and classified.

Sa’di’s Golestan, considered one of the masterpieces of Persian literature, has also attracted the attention of Ottoman poets, writers and secretaries and was read with enthusiasm. This valuable work has also been translated and described throughout the centuries in the Ottoman Empire and for the better understanding of it, Golestan dictionaries have been written. In addition, some poets and writers of this country, have written burlesques of Saʻdi’s Golestan in Persian and Ottoman languages, including the Shokrollah Sherwani’s Nakhlestan, Kamal Pashazadeh’s Negarestan, Sheikh Shoja Gourani’s Sonbolestan, Nargesi’s Nahalestan, and others. These burlesques are of great significance and there are many manuscripts in different libraries. The purpose of this article is to examine the style and content of the burlesques of Sa’di’s Golestan and their similarities and differences with Golestan-e Sa’di based on answering the following questions: 1) Have the imitators of Sa’di’s Golestan been able to produce the riming prose? 2) Have these burlesques been mere imitations, or have the authors been able to write a work belonging to their own society? 3) How successful have these works been?

Muslih Bin Abdullah through a linguistic epistemology and charming speech, this pious delivered trainer conveys, in prose and poetry, the greatest rhetorical and ethical contents involved in the world's comfort and the other world's convenience to social groups at all levels particularly for the median and intellectual authorities. And he never seems to give up his training duties. He makes use of philosophical, dialectical, and artistic methodology to illustrate his points. The result of all these traits in Sa’di contributes to his universal and permanently staying language. In one of his verses recorded in his admonition, he gives an advice in poetic and philosophical language stating that human being not acquiring the requirements of knowledge and divine wisdom deserve despising and punishment – and this should be taken as one of his training qualifications. In this article, I have tried to restore the philosophical concepts and terminologies inherent in his poetic language from the writings of his antecedents and his contemporaries in order to infer the wisdom behind his poem and interpret it in the philosophical Persian language of his era. The results from this article show that Sa’di truly deserves the term "human" for those who could harvest virtues, temperance, bravery, and divine wisdom from the farm of carnal so, animal soul, and rationality and could arrive at the destination of creating human, i.e. eternal success (the sum of ethical advantages). He takes granted the blessing of the divine in this difficult path.

After the appearance of Islam, new words along with grand meanings, jurisprudent terms, philosophy, Hadith and stories, theology, etc, entered the vastness of literature. In the meantime, poets with analytical minds and scientific- literary talent used jurisprudent terms softly and tenderly in their poems. Sa’di being already familiar with these sciences in Al- Nizamiyya of Baghdad, could benefit from jurisprudent terms in his poems. The most legal- jurisprudent terms he used were such as: damage, trust, trade, sham, repentance, limit, Diya (blood money), Haram and halal (dos and don’ts), witness, complainer.
Among Sa’di’s poems, Golestan is considered as educational and advisory. Sa’di has used summaries and rhythmic texts in which all heroes are humans and each story is a combination of “human and the situation”. Evidently in Golestan, highly distinctive human characteristics such as justice and fairness that are also emphasized in holy Quran and the Islamic law, are tested. This study reveals the effects of jurisprudent view of Sa’di considering justice in Golestan writings. The results show that not only the effects are noticeably significant, but also, the use of justice in Golestan in three levels of lexical, conceptual as well as natural, is present.

The study of literature has lost its traditional form over the past decades, leaving more room for interdisciplinary studies to flourish. One of such interdisciplinary fields is Translation Studies, which is closely interwoven with literature. Convergence of Translation Studies and Literary Studies best manifests itself in the field of Comparative Literature, where acculturation of literary traditions among different nations are investigated through translation. It is from this perspective that the present authors are attempting to study Sa’di’s Golestân and Bustân, to reveal the fact that how translation, in its both literal and metaphorical broad sense, may play a role in creation of even those literary works which seem to be the result of the author’s own thoughts and imaginations. Such a wide perspective on the creation of literary works arguably contributes to literary historiography as well as to the genealogy of the notion of translation in a culture.

“Discordant Verbs”, a literary trope involving juxtaposition of opposite verbs, is employed as a verbal rhetoric device in literary works. If used artistically and accompanied by such figures of speech as parallelism and pun, this literary device can add to the impressive eloquence of the speech. However, it is not so frequently used as to be considered a typical style in writing, and is exclusive to Sa’di and Hafez. By reviewing the way language and poetry are interrelated the researcher here tries to explore and analyze the figure of speech of “discordant verbs” in the poems of Sa’di and Hafez.

Sa’di is one of the leading figures of Persian literature with international reputation. His Bustan and Golestan are among the most influential texts and have exerted deed effects on Iranian’s values and beliefs. Therefore, it is important to know about Sa’di’s central views in these two books. Sa’di's views about God are investigated in his two great above mentioned works after a brief introduction. The results of the study show that Sa’di's familiar God is the God that Islam presents. Sa’di too has insisted on the omnipotence and omnipresence of God in all affairs.