جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه « kalam » در نشریات گروه « فلسفه و کلام »

Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Ali, nicknamed "Hakim", is a scholar from the third century who came from the land of Tirmidh. In addition to numerous works in the field of asceticism and mysticism, he has left a treatise called "Al-Rad Ala al-Rafidhah" which as its title suggests, is a theological work of the type of "Rejection". Although this treatise is very old, it has been neglected, abandoned in scholarly circles, and nothing is documented about it; there is no mention of it even in the introduction of rejections against Shi’a. In the remaining pages of the manuscript of this treatise, the issue of the succession of the Prophet (PBUH) is discussed and Hakim Tirmidhi has resorted to these reasons to strengthen the viewpoint of the Sunnis: Consensus of the Companions about the order of the Righteous Caliphs, negation of any explicit Hadith for succession by justifying the verse of Wilayah and Hadith of Ghadir, the impossibility of the Companions’ fault in obeying the Prophet (PBUH) and the Imam's silence and even satisfaction with the rule of the caliphs. In the present article, in a descriptive-analytical way, while introducing this treatise, it is tried to point out and criticize the claims and theological presumptions of Hakim Tirmidhi and answer his critiques of Shi’a beliefs.

This article seeks to find the foundation of Imam Muhammad al-Ghazali’s theological, mystical and ethical thought. The purpose of what Ghazali teaches as morality is Sufi education. Ghazali’s mystical ethics is reflected in the form of self-discipline in Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm al-dīn. This book is one of the most important theological, mystical and ethical works that has always been the focus of the scholars of the Islamic world and beyond. By relying on the ethical and mystical rereading of religious sources and texts, Ghazali caused major changes and reconsiderations in epistemology, ontology, methodology, anthropology and sociology. His mystical path and conduct enjoys ten main stages or positions, each of which pertains to obtaining one of the attributes leading to salvation or the “rescuers”. Ghazali’s mystical and ethical thought originates from his Islamic theological perspective. Although Ghazali rejected philosophy and Kalam in several works, such as Iljām al-ʿAwām ʿan ʿIlm il-Kalām, Tahāfut al-Falāsifah, and Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm al-dīn, he himself used these two sciences in some instances. Ghazali advises masses not to get close to Kalam and philosophy. He does not ignore any of mysticism, ethics and politics but has a comprehensive perspective towards them. Ghazali is one of the famous scholars in the Islamic world in jurisprudence, theology, philosophy, mysticism, ethics and other Islamic sciences.

One of the recent debates regarding Islamic philosophy focuses on its originality and the questions of the “possibility of Islamic philosophy”. This identity-related problem has a significant effect on the history and future of Islamic philosophy. The view of the opponents of the originality of this denomination, including Orientalists, Western historiographers, some Arab scholars, and those who are against any kind of religious philosophy can be considered to be reductionist. In their theories, they have reduced Islamic philosophy to a philosophy imitating Greek philosophy, Islamic Kalām and theology, and Arabic philosophy. Opposing Orientalists and historiographers view Greek philosophy as the base and Islamic philosophy as one of its branches. Some of the opponents believe that any attempt at establishing Islamic philosophy is in vain by insisting on the incompatibility of religion and philosophy. Moreover, by rejecting the possibility of religious philosophy, including Islamic philosophy, they maintain that the use of the word Islamic as an adjective for philosophy, as an intellectual science, is not justified and, thus, equate Islamic philosophy with Kalām and theology. Some other opponents, including Arabs, avoid the use of the phrase “Islamic philosophy”, and, by emphasizing the language of philosophical texts in Islamic tradition, call it Arabic philosophy. They limit Arabic philosophy to the Arab race and believe that this view is supported by history of philosophy. The present paper provides a critical analysis of the proponents of reductionist approaches to Islamic philosophy and aims to demonstrate and defend the necessity of its originality as a historical reality.

The Problem of the corporeal nature of what is other than God is of particular importance among Kalāmī theorems and is also among the few discussions about which almost all Kalāmī trends are unanimous. Mutikallīmūn believe that everything other than God, including Man and other existents, are bodily entities and introduce immaterial existents as absolutely perfect and self-sufficient truths. The exoteric, objective, and inclusive Kalāmī view necessitates and confirms the corporeality of Man’s identity and truth. Mullā Ṣadrā was among the thinkers who opposed mutikallīmūn’s corporealist view and tried to present a comprehensive and philosophical interpretation of Man’s reality and identity or an image which could exercise a positive influence on their individual and social life. Following a descriptive and documentary method and content analysis, the present study presents a critical review of Mullā Ṣadrā’s approach to mutikallīmūn’s views and demonstrates that his definition of Man’s identity and existential capacity is completely different from and even in contrast to that of mutikallīmūn. Unlike Mullā Ṣadrā, they consider such elements extremely trivial and limited, which is why their views suffer from several defects and problems.

One of the challenging discussions in the Salafi thought is the special kind of approach of this group to the issue of “imploration (tawassul) to the dead”. In this regard, the critique and examining the roots of Allusi’s approach as the exegete attributed to Salalfiyyah could be considered. By comprehensive look to Allusi’s views in this field, we find that his thought in this realm suffers from a kind of contradiction and inner inconsistency and does not corresponds completely the extremist salafi approach in this issue. Considering the semantic and ontological kind of view of Allusi could be helpful in the examination of this issue. The distinct semantic of Allusi is apparent in comparison to the salfis in the realm of monotheism of divinity and lordship (tawhid al-‘uluhiyyah wal-rububiyyah) along with his ontological view in the discussions such as knowledge of the unseen, purgatory life, hearing by the dead etc. and is different from the salafiyyah attitude. It can justify his different epistemological approach to the issue of imploration (tawassul) in comparison to the salafi thought.

The Mutazilites believe that the big-sins-doer which dies without repentance will encounter to the divine punishment and there is no way for his/her forgiveness. From their opinion, such a person although being believer, because of his/her sins like a non-believer will always be in torment. Therefore, if God does not punish this person, He violated his Waid (Punish Promise) and violating the Waid implicates a lie; while God never lies, then he never violates Waid. In a descriptive and content analysis way, this research tries to prove that violating Waid is not false from the view point of Kalam (Theology) and Feqh (Jurisprudence). On the basis of some rational and narrative reasons, the Shia thinkers criticized the Mutazili theory. From the view point of these thinkers, violating Waid is not false (Kedhb), because it is related to the practical phase, not to the serious will. Also Waid is primarily conditioned and is not practicable until its condition realized. Thus in the lack of conditions, forgiveness is possible. In addition, if violating Waid is false, every false is not inadmissible. The evidence is the religious legislator's (Share') permission for lie on the basis of some expedients. Considering Wad (promise) and Waid as subjunctive mood (insha’) is another way for solving the misgiving of contradiction of false of violating Waid. Accordingly, Wad and Waid are of subjunctive moods that are stated in the form of simple sentences. Then the application of correct and false for them is not real but metaphorical.

Investigating the significance and knowledge domain of a holy text is one of the fundamental problems of religious Language. For Sadra the religious language is a cognitive language. He considers the relation between word and meaning in Revelation as a genetic one; he believes that contrary to imagery in literature in revelation there is a univocity between appearance and reality and the descended truths in the existential hierarchies correspond with each other in a vertical relationship. In this domain, Molla Sadra explains philosophically the self-manifestation of the revealed truths in terms of holy text by using the correspondence between the knowledge and language (Kalam) with the being in the arc of descent and in the arc of ascent he provides an understanding process of the holy text whose reconstruction forms his model of ontological hermeneutics. The principal problem of this article is the explanation of the significance of religious language and its cognitive domain in Sadra’s hermeneutic model which results from an investigation of this model and effective factors in the process of the holy text understanding. This research has been conducted based on Mafatih al-ghayb and explanation of its philosophical foundations on the basis of the Transcendent Philosophy and one of its most important findings is displaying the role of triad of individual, text and the author in relation together by Sadra’s hermeneutic model and using this model for explaining the cognitive domain of religious language regarding the text and also from text to extra-text. Contrary to the one-dimensional exoteric conventional or esoteric dogmatic and absolutist models in understanding Quran, Mulla Sadra provides a comprehensive multiple coherent model that is based on singular reality and is rooted in the existence hierarchy, existential layers of human being and the interiors of holy text. Due to move around the gradational singular reality, the process of understanding distinguishes this model from dogmatic absolutism in understanding; this causes to not slip in abyss of relativism and thus it solves the problem of judgment among the multiple interpretations. Therefore, Sadra’s ontological hermeneutics is situated between two poles of absolutism and relativism. For doing an interpretative movement from the exterior to the interior of the text and understanding the hierarchical truth of that, he provides a special model in which the interaction among individual, text and author causes to understand the hierarchical text. Based on the existential link and unity between individual and text in each stage of existence, a proper stage of understanding results and the highest point of this understanding is a unity with the author as a true and ultimate meaning of the text. Thus Sadra’s model opens a way to the text world the highest point of which is an ontological unity among the triad of individual, text and author. In this way the role and effect of presuppositions in interpretation is clarified by Sadra. Furthermore, with this model he has answered the problem of judgment about the multiple interpretations. However, the domain of Sadra’s cognitive religious language does not content oneself with text, but in his view everything is interpretable, because the world is the same language (Kalam) and also everything is or in the text (compilation book) or in the extra-text (generation book and soul book). Since the text and extra-text have an interior and an exterior and the interpretation reveals the way from the exterior to the interior, so speaking of interpretability of everything is not absurd. Hence in Sadra’s model the interpretation is not limited to find out a common meaning between the descended knowledge and the higher stages of that knowledge, but it includes the finding out of a truth common between the descended existence and the higher stages of that existence, too. Therefore, we must search an approach for analyzing the existential phenomena of the world; Sadra’s hermeneutics provides a way to enter into meaning of the soul book and generation book by using the interpretative model of compilation book. In Sadra’s philosophy we encounter with text as one mode of existence. The relation between the text and the extra-text is an existential one, at least in case of holy text, and the world is the same language. This existential aspect of text and Mulla Sadra’s emphasis on homothety and correspondence among the compilation book, soul book and generation book reinforce this hypothesis that for knowing and understanding the soul book and generation book we can benefit from Sadra’s ontological hermeneutics and its encounter with the text. On this ground, in interpreting the extra-text the triad of individual, text and author is transformed into the triad of individual, extra-text and Creator; that corresponds with this. As in the first triad the understanding of text depends on the unity of individual and text during the trans-substantial motion, in interpreting the extra-text also the understanding of extra-text depends on the unity of individual and the extra-text. Similar to the interpretation and understanding of the world, the human being has been introduced as a homothetic version of the world and the perfect man as a variant of the world. Of course, here also the highest point of meaning is the unity among the triad of individual, extra-text and Creator. Perhaps this approach opens a way to formation of the ontological sciences specially in domain of human sciences and types of religious knowledge. In Sadra’s hermeneutics the interpretation of the world’s existents is God

"Social Theology" is a branch of Islamic Social Sciences, which is concerned with deduction, explanation and defense of Islamic teachings and views on social issues. Islamic theologians throughout history and in light of the maximal approach to religion have paid attention to all aspects of religion in all aspects of human social life there, even though their social heritage was not included in a separate field. Social researches first popped in Europe and America in response to social conditions of the West and Christianity and then appeared in other Islamic lands. Social theology in comparison with other social sciences, due to the distinctive features of the methodology, cosmology and anthropology, has the ability to develop and flourish in theorizing the problems of society.

This paper intends to demonstrate that the traces of the epistemological criterion for Cartesian distinction existed previously in Islamic philosophy and kalam. Hence, the writer initially refers to Descartes’ views and follows their traces in the ideas of early Muslim scholars. Then he refers to the views of some Muslim thinkers such as Fakhr al-Din Razi, ‘Allamah Hilli, Taftazani, and Mulla Sadra, who were already involved in this discussion more than others and propounded more solid and plausible theories in this regard. They have sometimes reviewed the same informed theories critically before some of the critiques of Descartes. In this way, the author reveals that Islamic thinkers’ interpretation of the Cartesian distinction is closer to Hume’s more solid interpretation of this notion than to that of Descartes himself. Hume states that clarity and distinction result in possible existence rather than the very existence of the researchers.

The critics of Islamic Philosophy have always denied its independent philosophical identity. In this direction Islamic Philosophy is either considered an Arabic interpretation of Greek Philosophy by Muslims or by adding Islamic tag to it presented it as equivatent to Islamic science of Kalam. It is worth noting that although Islamic Philosophy has received its subject, method and early framework from Greek Philosophy, but in view of its benefiting from religious Islamic texts has its innovations that makes this philosophy distinguishable from Western Philosophy. Of course, this benefiting from religious texts, has not deprived it of its philosophical identity and has not changed it into science of Kalam, for this science by its subject, method and goal is different from science of Kalam.
Finally, Islamic philosophy is a science that by preserving its early and fundamental philosophical framework has utilized from religious texts in outlining its problems, raising arguments, removing doubts and confirmation and judgement.