جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه « روش شناسی » در نشریات گروه « جغرافیا »

Many researchers believe that in order to achieve urban security and better understand the areas related to security, its two conceptual and interpretive aspects, including the field of security philosophy, ontology and epistemology should be examined. Obviously, it is not possible to define a phenomenon such as urban security without understanding the concepts, because it must be seen to what extent the phenomenon is consistent with our feelings. In this area, issues such as why, what, value, purpose and the issue of security in the general sense and urban security in the specific sense should be addressed. In this regard, it is necessary to consider the dimensions and elements of research in the field of urban security. Many researchers divide the dimensions and elements of research into three general categories: philosophical elements, praxis and ethics. Undoubtedly, along with the requirements of using philosophical elements as well as ethics in the process of urban security studies, a special role should be considered for praxis and its place in these studies. At the praxis level, four elements of research are mentioned, including theory, methodology, methods and genre. Many believes that the failure to achieve acceptable results in the field of urban security studies depends on the lack of attention to the basic concepts of praxis and its subsets. A review of the literature and research background in this field indicates a deep research gap in the field of concept and methodology, so that no specific source explicitly mentions the field and position of praxis independently. Thus, the purpose of this article is to explain the position of praxis in urban security studies in order to provide a reasoned answer to these key questions: what is the meaning of praxis? What are its elements? And how its implementation and operational practices can be achieved in urban security studies.

Due to the nature of the research, the literature review method, including searching and evaluating the existing literature on the position of praxis in urban security studies has been used. In this regard, four main processes include reviewing the literature, combining and summarizing the existing literature, critical collection of resources in order to identify the existing knowledge gap by showing the limitations of theories and views; the formulation of areas for further research through organized critical review has also been emphasized. In the research process, various methods of literature review including argumentative, integrative, historical, methodological, systematic and theoretical review studied, but two methods of methodological and theoretical review used.

The elements and dimensions of research, including philosophical elements, ethics and praxis, each have important differences that affect in the research process of urban security studies. Different situations of axiology, ontology, epistemology and methodology produce different methods that ultimately lead to the production of knowledge about social phenomena. It can simply be said that the axiological or ontological position of each person, affects his epistemological position. In each of the dimensions and elements of the research praxis in the field of urban security studies, several spectrums can be identified. For example, the ontology of urban security research takes meaning of objectivism and subjectivism, or a combination of both, or in the field of methodology, the quantitative (positivist), qualitative (interpretivism), or both quantitative and qualitative methods (pragmatism). Researchers in the field of urban security studies need to pay special attention to the functional differences of each under the element of praxis.

According to each of the elements and dimensions of research in the field of urban security studies, while paying attention to the philosophical elements, ethics and praxis, it is possible to identify its most important subsets. In this regard, explaining the position of praxis and its constituent elements, including theory, methodology, method and genre or species, have a special place in urban security studies. Theory in urban security studies by providing a theoretical and conceptual framework of research provides a logical procedure and clear definitions of variables to provide a certain scope of research. In methodology, the urban researcher intends to provide a plan for combining theories and methods or an optimal combination of research elements in the field of urban security studies. Methods in the field of urban security studies are also a set of algorithms that the researcher uses during a research. These methods assist the researcher in selecting samples, collecting and analyzing data, and finding solutions. Genres are also classifications of different methods in terms of research approaches and strategies. For example, any approach to research in urban security studies depends specifically on the methods of data collection and analysis that must be carefully selected and implemented. Accordingly, the field of urban security studies, based on the idea of praxis requires the interaction of elements such as theory, methodology, method and genre and its connection with philosophical and ethics elements is inevitable.

Political geography is one of the branches of geography. The science of political geography is known as first degree knowledge and the philosophy of political geography is known as second degree knowledge. In this research, the philosophy of political geography from the approach of Islam has been studied. Therefore, assuming that, first, Islam has a defensible theoretical basis in all political and social fields, and secondly, such a research has been done due to the gap in the field of philosophy of political geography from the perspective of Islamic thought. Accordingly, while referring to Islamic texts and sources, including the Holy Quran, narrative sources, texts of political and historical jurisprudence, as well as the works of Muslim thinkers in this regard, the necessary formulation with reasoned content of Islamic political geography has been compiled. The present study is a descriptive-analytical method, especially content analysis, and the results show that Islamic thought in the field of social sciences, and especially in the field of political geography, is based on an approach called the approach of revelatory rationality.

Criticism indicates dynamism in scientific fields and the science of geography as a rooted science, especially after 1923, has become accustomed to criticism. And considers the existence of critical contexts as the inspiration for the development of scientific theories and the transformation of existing methods. If we consider the alignment of scientific methods in geography to be influenced by the views of Hartshorn and Schaefer and in the form of exceptionalism and the space science, The tendencies in the methods of analysis in this science should also be followed in two categories: quantitative and qualitative. This study deals with the pathology of quantitative methods in contemporary Iranian geography, For the examples of these injuries, the content analysis of articles in three domestic scientific-research journals has been studied. The information required for this research has been obtained by using documentary sources and using the content of articles in the quarterly journals "Human Geography Research", "Human Settlement Planning Studies" and Geographical Space. The data have been analyzed using the information extracted from these journals and matching the content of these studies with the concepts, axes and missions of geographers. The results of this study showed that in 92.6% of the researches the method of data collection was field and in 64.7% of them the questionnaire technique was used as the dominant method. Among the basic questions of geography, the pursuit of what and where phenomena still prevails. And in 79.3% of the articles, the quantitative method has prevailed in the analysis of the phenomenon that in some of them, there was no need for correlation and regression analysis to prove between the variables. Finally, the concerns of modern geography were less questioned in the articles studied in this study, Only 30% of the researches have dealt with issues such as "social theory", "political economy" and "cultural theories, which to some extent testifies to the conservatism of Iranian geographical research.

In spite of presenting some new insights and relevant critiques on traditional geopolitics, it seems that critical geopolitics is reductionist and consequently is not capable of explanation of current geopolitical situation at the global scale. Roots of this reductionism should be explored in philosophical foundations of critical geopolitics. Considering some of its main arguments and concepts, including positionality, situated-ness, and partiality, critical geopolitics is a poststructuralist and postmodern approach. According to the critical geopolitics, geopolitical practices, forces and processes are indeed reduced to constellations of rival ideas and discourses.

This research aims at critically and systematically excavate and evaluate the deficiencies of critical geopolitics. In doing so, there is need to develop an alternative critical theoretical framework which can provide bases for a systematic critique. Accordingly, we aim at employ Bhaskarian critical realism as a theoretical alternative. It seems that having a stratified ontology, makes these two different but mutually reinforcing approaches appropriate bases to critically understand geopolitics as a multilayered reality. Accordingly, the main goal of the research is to highlight and explain the implicit and explicit ontological, epistemological and methodological foundations of critical geopolitics.

It can be argued that critical geopolitics lacks an independent philosophical foundation and therefore has a non-original philosophical base. To put it more precisely, ontology of critical geopolitics is anthropocentric. Hence, it is an idealist, subjectivist and constructivist approach that reduces reality to discourse, and knowledge to discursive interpretation. In critical realist terms, it can be argued that critical geopolitics lacks a stratified ontology and cannot explain non-discursive and structural layers of reality, and more importantly, their interactions. This flat ontology which is associated with an interpretative/constructivist epistemology and a hermeneutic methodology, can easily lead to voluntarism in political sphere – something that is evident in emphasis of critical geopolitics on situated-ness and standpoint of subjects. By overemphasizing on the role and importance of the subject in power relations, although fruitfully challenges the naïve structuralism and mere positivism, critical geopolitics cannot conceptualize the objectivity of power and geopolitical reality beyond the individual human actors and agents.

To conclude, critical geopolitics cannot understand and recognize the relative independence of subjective and objective layers of geopolitical reality. One of the consequences of such an approach is that theory and theorization will be reduced to a mere narrating and describing of mere the empirical level. Hence, there is no possibility to understand and explain different and interrelated layers of geopolitical reality. The whole problem will be reduced to rival geopolitical discourses without considering the link of these discourses to their objective and material bases. Therefore, critical geopolitics arbitrarily limits its analysis to just a part of reality and prevents the possibility of a critical encounter with reality in advance. Such an approach is fruitless and has retrogressive results on the political level. Undoubtedly if we cannot grasp the whole aspects of the problem, as it really is, at the theoretical level, there will be no precise guidance for democratic and emancipatory action..

Futurology as an interdisciplinary field has experienced rapid and growing expansion in spatial, temporal, philosophical and methodological paradigms. Although the basis of modern futurism is in the history of Western futurism, thinking about the future is not new; This category is a universal phenomenon that can be traced back to prehistoric times. In all known human societies, people have ideas about time and the future, these perceptions, although seemingly different, have different emphasis on the past and the future and are at different levels in terms of detail.However, the existence of such ideas in all human societies is an undeniable fact. Therefore, this article deals with the issue with the approach of historical-genealogical analysis and while explaining the concept of futurology and its philosophical paradigms, intellectual traditions, historical periodization of futures studies and methodology have been examined.

the human science, one concept may be having some definition or even may be this narration was contradiction with each other in different philosophical schools. Therefore, explanation of one concept or relationship in different cognition schools has very great importance. From philosophical aspects in human science, theoretical structure has very fundamental role in cognition. In other word, ontology, cognition and methodology of one concept is deficient or uncompleted without determination of theoretical structure. In this field, in the geographical sciences; relationship between politics and space as very important paradigm in the geography could be taken different meaning in different cognition schools. Space consists of bilateral relation between human and environment. Geographical sciences analyses this space and its issues with human and physical dimension. Between different aspects of Geographical space, political dimension and executive is more important than another dimension. In other word, this dimension and its ideological framework for resolve the issues in the space in different cognitive methodology could be were differed. In the evaluated of Geographical studies from the 1970s with the arrival of Marxist ideas in Geography A number of geographers turn away from focusing on quantitative methods and ecological studies. in the Positivism school, space was considered as perceptual thing. In other word, researcher should be use from their sense and their experience for detection of thing in space. before that, Dominance methodological in geographical studies was defined in positivism school. In this school, researcher should not involve his ideology or his culture for discovering of truth. While, in post positivism thinking quantities’ planning is not nothing except "false consciousness". In post positivism school, meanings, ideas, theories, the whole of them obtain their objectivity and ostensible concept by dominant power and ideology. In this school, geographical spaces also are derived from dominant ideological and power. In structuralism philosophy Major assumption is that invisible force in behind of any symbol in the space that were caused any symbol in space are emerged. So, the space concept does not have actual objectivity. Since the 1970s was conducted a serious theoretical criticism on the quantitative methodology in Geography. This time, the philosophy of geography was full of political and ideological conflicts. This time due to the cognitive shift in geographical sciences among the different dimensions of geographic space. The political dimension of space as one of the most important dimensions of space was more important to resolve these challenges. So, in this article, have been struggled to understand the relationship between politics and geographical space in post positivism methodology and was analyzed the effectiveness of understanding this relationship in post positivism methodology.

This research has fundamental approaches in the philosophy of geography and for compilation of information has been referred to valid document and bibliography. In this research were struggled with descriptive and analytical approaches, in first step was defined space concept and cognition. Then, the space definition has been accorded with characteristics of post positivism cognition school.

As mentioned, in the definition of geographical space concept, one of the important aspects of production and changes the geographical space is resulting from political power. So that, politics and ideology as a process and geographical space as the form and context is always interconnected with each other. In other words, any action that knowingly or unwittingly crosses with political power considered as political action and therefore spatial structure is the production of political processes. Generally, the main functions of post positivism for understanding the relationship between politics and geographic space is as follows:1- Changing in geographic space phenomena are affected largely by political power and patterns of society. Although the trend of geographical space not to be studied form just one-dimensional. However, Discourse merely not take consider as abstract ideas, in realistic approaches they are as previous existence that takes precedence over any other discovery. So any phenomenon into geographical space is dependent to a discourse. On the other hand, coordination between different levels of space planning regardless of dominant power cannot be achieved in a sustainable way.2- Studies Methods for relationship between politics and geographical space is far from qualitative method and there is no character reproducibility on it. because space necessary is affected by the changing ideologies and political actors. since the change of power and discourse cannot be predicted. Thus, changes in spatial phenomena cannot be identified and predicted and incommensurability of discourses in different historical periods it is one of the inevitable consequences. So in future studies for recognition of relationship between politics and space in trans positivism is needed Genealogy approach. In this approach, since there isn’t accurate knowledge about the future of geographical space changes as a result of political power transition. In this context, recognizing changes various aspects of geographic space-based genealogy of power is carried out through the following steps. A) break points of discourse should be Determined until its historicity be understood. B) Period time should be Determined when the discourse has impacts with current framework on the other aspect of geographical space.

As was said, Space is major paradigm in geographical sciences and different aspect of geographical sciences read relation between human and environment that produce the space. But as was said, space has different meaning in distinct cognition schools. In other word, every school for resolve the issue in the space could be make different solution. So, solutions that presented by post positivism are distinct from solutions that was presented by another methodology. Form another side, the evolution of human wisdom considers, collective action coordinated as only way to overcome on the issues in the geographical space. So, studies between politics and space is obtained only by authority and the rule of one class as political dominant over the another of social classes. As a result, for studying of ideology and political construction effects on other dimensions of geographical space must be used from post positivism methodology.

The emergence of decentralization approach and transfer some political authority to non-state actors has provided new actions for the management of geographical space under the name of spatial governance. The roots of the emergence of the concept of spatial governance return to the economic-political changing in the 1980s. The emergence of a decentralization approach and the transfer powers from government to nongovernmental institutions has provided a new concept in the name of "spatial governance". Therefore, governance is beyond the government and includes the private sector and civil society with the approach of market economy and participatory democracy. So, in this paper major question is “who spatial governance functioned in the post- positivism methodology?” In this regard, in the first step has been made to define the concept of governance and its dimensions and sub-sets in relation to geographical space. Then, by matching the spatial governance conceptual relationship with post-positivism approach, a new perspective on the causes of the greater impact of this school is presented in understanding this concept. According to the governance framework, the management and production of space is not only an objective or objective action, but also it is a constructive, unfinished, contingent, and conditional, conditional and social condition. therefore, the space policy was created in a cultural-historical territory must be consistent with the cultural and historical values of a particular of human beings group and the conditions for the development and optimization of space by these policies should fit into the pattern of their social life. in governance approach, some of the concepts such as truth, rationality, justice, goodness, and especially development, are not independent from its the social processes that shape it. On this basis, spatial governance cannot have universal dimensions.  Because social action is faced with a process that can create a single position at any given time, pro-active methodology cannot predict and predict it.

The Attempt To Recognize Phenomena And Affairs Has Always Been A Concern Of The Human Mind And Has Constantly Sought To Complete This Knowledge. The Correct Recognition Is Also Achieved When The Real Nature Of Phenomena Is Clear To Man. The Phenomena Are Based on Their Own Philosophical Foundations and, Therefore, Their Understanding Requires perception These Philosophical Foundations and Using Proper Methods of Recognition. The Map Is Also A Phenomenon That Has Its Own Philosophical Foundations And By Understanding These Philosophical Foundations, The True Meaning And The Components That Influence Its Meaning Are Clarified. Recognizing It Correctly Requires Understanding Many Of The Elements And Other Factors. To Really Understand This Phenomenon, One Needs To Understand And Understand Beyond What Is Usually Said About It. In This Research, We Tried To Clarify The Philosophical Foundations Of The Map And The Factors Influencing Its Meaning By Using Of Hermeneutical Methodology. The Results Of This Research Showed That The Map Of The Ontology Aspect Is Of An Objective-Subjective Nature. Therefore, It Should Be Understood By Methodology Such As Hermeneutics And Not Explanation. Also, Using This Method, It Is Determined That The Mapping Factors Are Divided Into Two Categories. Internal Factors, Such As The Choice Of The Type Of Projection And Cartographic Deviations And External Factors Such As, The Mental Purpose Of The Cartographer And The Banners, Understand Map Reader From Map, And The Spaces Of Thought, Power, And So On Make Up The Actual Meaning Of The Map.

In the human science, one concept may be having some definition or even may be this narration was contradiction with each other in different philosophical schools. Therefore, explanation of one concept or relationship in different cognition schools has very great importance. From philosophical aspects in human science, theoretical structure has very fundamental role in cognition. In other word, ontology, cognition and methodology of one concept is deficient or uncompleted without determination of theoretical structure. In this field, in the geographical sciences; relationship between politics and space as very important paradigm in the geography could be taken different meaning in different cognition schools. Space consists of bilateral relation between human and environment. Geographical sciences analyses this space and its issues with human and physical dimension. Between different aspects of Geographical space, political dimension and executive is more important than another dimension. In other word, this dimension and its ideological framework for resolve the issues in the space in different cognitive methodology could be were differed. In the evaluated of Geographical studies from the 1970s with the arrival of Marxist ideas in Geography A number of geographers turn away from focusing on quantitative methods and ecological studies. in the Positivism school, space was considered as perceptual thing. In other word, researcher should be use from their sense and their experience for detection of thing in space. before that, Dominance methodological in geographical studies was defined in positivism school. In this school, researcher should not involve his ideology or his culture for discovering of truth. While, in post positivism thinking quantities’ planning is not nothing except "false consciousness". In post positivism school, meanings, ideas, theories, the whole of them obtain their objectivity and ostensible concept by dominant power and ideology. In this school, geographical spaces also are derived from dominant ideological and power. In structuralism philosophy Major assumption is that invisible force in behind of any symbol in the space that were caused any symbol in space are emerged. So, the space concept does not have actual objectivity.
Since the 1970s was conducted a serious theoretical criticism on the quantitative methodology in Geography. This time, the philosophy of geography was full of political and ideological conflicts. This time due to the cognitive shift in geographical sciences among the different dimensions of geographic space. The political dimension of space as one of the most important dimensions of space was more important to resolve these challenges. So, in this article, have been struggled to understand the relationship between politics and geographical space in post positivism methodology and was analyzed the effectiveness of understanding this relationship in post positivism methodology.

This research has fundamental approaches in the philosophy of geography and for compilation of information has been referred to valid document and bibliography. In this research were struggled with descriptive and analytical approaches, in first step was defined space concept and cognition. Then, the space definition has been accorded with characteristics of post positivism cognition school.

Result and
As mentioned, in the definition of geographical space concept, one of the important aspects of production and changes the geographical space is resulting from political power. So that, politics and ideology as a process and geographical space as the form and context is always interconnected with each other. In other words, any action that knowingly or unwittingly crosses with political power considered as political action and therefore spatial structure is the production of political processes. Generally, the main functions of post positivism for understanding the relationship between politics and geographic space is as follows:1- Changing in geographic space phenomena are affected largely by political power and patterns of society. Although the trend of geographical space not to be studied form just one-dimensional. However, Discourse merely not take consider as abstract ideas, in realistic approaches they are as previous existence that takes precedence over any other discovery. So any phenomenon into geographical space is dependent to a discourse. On the other hand, coordination between different levels of space planning regardless of dominant power cannot be achieved in a sustainable way.
2- Studies Methods for relationship between politics and geographical space is far from qualitative method and there is no character reproducibility on it. because space necessary is affected by the changing ideologies and political actors. since the change of power and discourse cannot be predicted. Thus, changes in spatial phenomena cannot be identified and predicted and incommensurability of discourses in different historical periods it is one of the inevitable consequences. So in future studies for recognition of relationship between politics and space in trans positivism is needed Genealogy approach. In this approach, since there isn’t accurate knowledge about the future of geographical space changes as a result of political power transition. In this context, recognizing changes various aspects of geographic space-based genealogy of power is carried out through the following steps. A) break points of discourse should be Determined until its historicity be understood. B) Period time should be Determined when the discourse has impacts with current framework on the other aspect of geographical space.


As was said, Space is major paradigm in geographical sciences and different aspect of geographical sciences read relation between human and environment that produce the space. But as was said, space has different meaning in distinct cognition schools. In other word, every school for resolve the issue in the space could be make different solution. So, solutions that presented by post positivism are distinct from solutions that was presented by another methodology. Form another side, the evolution of human wisdom considers, collective action coordinated as only way to overcome on the issues in the geographical space. So, studies between politics and space is obtained only by authority and the rule of one class as political dominant over the another of social classes. As a result, for studying of ideology and political construction effects on other dimensions of geographical space must be used from post positivism methodology.

1.

Geopolitics is one of the geographic sciences branches which can be discussed at various methodological schools. By the middle of the 20th century, dominant geopolitical theories and frameworks were often based on the objective aspects of geography and its impact on political relations between countries and blocks of power. However, observing the weakness of geopolitical predictions and the lack of response to many contradictions, thinkers moved to new theoretical frameworks in geopolitics. This shift has caused the spread of interpretive methodology to geopolitical studies. However, the excessive use of the idealistic methodology could cause the lack of attention to the issues and challenges in places and regions. However, today, more than past, applied studies in geographic sciences are carried out in positivism method. Therefore, applied geopolitical studies are still more feasible in the positivism school because when the propositions are referred to the objective world, the causation and prediction in dimension of methodology become operational. Now, the question that arises is which applied geopolitics will be closer to the approach of positivism school (inductive or deductive approaches) for better optimization?
2.

Theoretical Framework
Geopolitics is based on the role of geography in the international relation which analyzes the domination of actors and governments in this context. From a geopolitical view, governments and political actors compete to gain opportunities in geographical space. They try to expand their influence on important spaces.
Deductive approach discusses the necessities for scientific recognition and the definition of "coherent systems" that exist in geopolitical studies. The logic behind deductive approach consists of definite arguments while the logic of inductive approach is based on probable inferences. In this methodology, the condition for the applicability of geopolitics is based on inferential and rational methods for studying geopolitical developments in different places and regions. Based on this methodological framework, there are fixed collections based on which it is possible to explain and predict the geopolitical changes while, some indexes such as the kind of political system are also influential in geopolitical studies that eliminate inductive generalizations. Obviously, in accordance with the conditions of international relations, the combination of these two features leads the dimensions of geopolitical studies towards a rational proof-making methodology. From the deductive perspective, inferential rationality has potential to identify and distinguish historically the spatial policies in geopolitical studies.
3.

This article intends to explain the optimal functions of deductive methodology in descriptive-analytical approach. In the first stage, it tries to explain the deductive methodology and geopolitical concept. Then, the epistemological ability of deductive methodology has been analyzed in comparison with interpretive and inductive methods in Geopolitical studies particularly after the cold war.
4.

The Findings reveal that the content of geopolitics has some conceptual principles that exclusively require a deductive methodology. The most important principles are as follows:A: Deductive explanation, and differentiation in the geopolitical value of places and regions
According to the views of many geopolitical thinkers, identifying the important regions and places in the world has been one of the studying goals. It has been done based on a rational positivist approach. Intrinsically, the distinction between the geopolitical significance of places and geographical areas is inherent in the geopolitical structure of the world. In the first step, the importance of geographical places should be highlighted in the deductive approach to predict the political behavior of governments and actors. Basically, in the transnational scale, the spatial threats are not considered as the impartial stimuli and these are often explained by deductive logic.
B- Deductive explanation and connotation in geopolitical studies
The deductive approach could help to predict the geopolitical developments in the world. With this method the scholars of international relations and geopolitics do not explain the historical events merely. Because such statements directly refer to the external conditions and express the real and objective characteristics.
C- The end of the Cold War and the increasing value of the deductive approach in geopolitical studies
After the Cold War and with the end of the ideological competition, the ideological value of the regions did not merely cause competition, security, and strategy, but they were the resources available in the geopolitical structure of the world that credited them. From this perspective, the competition model has a completely geopolitical, objective, and predictable content. Therefore, although a super authority is not dominant over the global system, there are self-regulating mechanisms that can be explained in geopolitical systems and the behavior of governments and affecting actors in the transnational area can be explained based on the deductive rationality.
5.

Most of the applied geographic studies have recognized the causes of these phenomena in geographic space as objective phenomena. Geopolitics also studies the objective concepts in space that produce political action between countries in transnational scale. Of course, unlike the national scale, there is no centralized political power and sovereignty for governing the space in the transnational scale. Thus, the deductive methodology should be applied to study geopolitics, because anticipating and monitoring the behavior of states and actors based on the quantitative techniques in the transnational scale are not possible. Politics has a qualitative and variable nature and it is necessary to use a deductive approach.

Applying a methodology relevant to the research question is one of the most fundamental elements of scientific research. Due to the importance of urban development in geographical and urban planning research, the examination of the employed methodologies in a systematic process of scientific inquiry is an inevitable necessity. Hence, critical review of the methodologies of scientific research and evaluation of methodological criteria (the process of doing research) is the purpose of this study. This is a descriptive-analytical research with emphasis on library resources (the PRISMA statement checklist) and expert-based method. The sample of this research includes sixteen theses in geography and urban planning on urban development in state universities of Tehran. Results show that while in experts’ opinion, problem statement, research questions and research methodology are the most important indices, the examined theses had shortcomings in these aspects and paid more attention to resources, goal description and composition skills.

Models of simulation and optimization of land use change are tools to understand the driving factors and consequences of land use change and to predict and explain the changes in land use over time and space. These models with scenario analysis tools can help policy makers and land use planners. Many types of land use models and applications already exist that each has a different perspective to look at the issue. Reviewing the land use change concepts and classifying the relevant models in terms of methodology is the first step in understanding the concepts and applying these models in real-world applications. In addition, having a comprehensive insight to the models and methods, as well as the strengths and weaknesses of each, can make a significant contribution to researchers to develop new generation of models that are more integrated and comprehensive. So in this paper, we have discussed the field of land use change in three parts: core concepts, core principles, and modeling methods. First, the conceptual aspects that distinguish among studies in the field of land use change modeling will be described and then, core principles based on them land use changes occur are described. In the rest of the paper, the flow of these concepts and principles in different models and a complete classification of the existing models in terms of methodology have been explained. Based on this classification and review, some of the research priorities in land use modeling are presented and suggestions for future development of these models have been represented. The need for more attention to integrity and development of models with comprehensive goals as well as development of new and efficient solution methods are the most important of research area in this field.

The geographical space as a “phenomenon” includes various phenomena that we can put them in the two Dasien(s) and non-Dasien(s) layers. We try to answer this question: “which methodology is suitable methodology to cognition geographical space?” by the hermeneutic phenomenology perspective, and critical viewpoint to the categories of methodology (explanation & interpretation) and the subcategories of methodology (positivism, phenomenology, hermeneutic and critical thinking). So, after the unveiling of the two great disincentives of cognition of the geographical space (1.to rupture phenomenon from its world, 2. To capture geographer in his/her world), it became apparent that the removing of disincentives depends on passing the seven steps (1.within the layers, 2. Among the layers, 3. Among geographical spaces, 4. With pre-understandings, 5. Among pre-understanding, 6. Objective-subjective, 7.intersubjective). The passing of the seven steps can be done by seven “hermeneutic circles” that the seven hermeneutic circles are open circles. So, the answer of mentioned question is: the methodology of geographical space is “interpretation” mostly That it can pass the seven step of cognition by seven hermeneutic circle and understand actions and reactions of Dasien(s) in the geographical space; because every action and reaction be done by human have a significance that we can understand it by the interpretative methodologies. We can unveil and analyse geographical phenomena and their reasons by this methodology and understand them nearly.

Territoriality is considered in the political geography and geopolitics as one of the fundamental issues. Territoriality is man-made political structure that seeks to divide space. Territoriality is political nature or the nature of dispute and no existed without division of space into separate parts and the exclusive allocation of space. Therefore, territoriality is purposeful process that may pursue various purposes, including economic, security, identity, stimulus or even emotional. This paper intends to use the three elements of "space", "power" and "identity" to explain the formation process of discursive territoriality. This result can achieve the ways in which critical geopolitics scholarship has understood and made use of discourse analysis. Discursive territoriality is " process in which the individuals, groups, or dominant countries for the control and management of geographic space to your desired geopolitical and political order, beyond the discourse in which hard power to control space so that those who exercise authority over them are not realizing such a process”. By the definition, discursive territoriality is the practical relations between "space", "power" and "identity". Each of these three components is referred as social phenomena in the context of the three components of their meaning. The most important element of this concept is power. The definition of power used in steven‌lukes is the special nature contrary to the classical theories and new theories of postmodern (or foucault). 'Power' is a concept in which society is divided into two poles obeys and ruler. Power in this view is something that is in the hands of some people and not the others. Despite the effective application of the definition of the concept of power steven‌lukes in discursive territoriality but actually is inefficient to explain some geopolitical discourse. Hence, to get out of this trap, we used of nietzsche's will to power and the forces of action and reaction deleuze. He explains by borrowing from nietzsche's will to power, both proactive and reactive power. The research is fundamental and using descriptive-analytical method. The method of data collection is libraries and the internet. What will be followed by the meaning of the expression " discursive territoriality " and its three components of the "space", "power" and "identity", is that in addition to the obvious dimension of territoriality through territorial expansionism and aggression, there are also the (soft) territoriality dimension mentioned in the article as "discursive territoriality". Based on this proposition, we should mention discursive territoriality as the unit state or the units of imperial. To create the space homogenizing, the discursive territoriality implies that the dominant discourse (hegemonic) influence such ideas and goods. It has the culture in different geographical areas, so that the areas affected by specific thought patterns (hegemon) have favorable political and geopolitical order. Namely, nowadays the west's discourse does not have Ratzel territorial expansionism theory. However, the same kind of attitude and expansion will follow the areas of thought and culture to dominate the minds and hearts of people. Finally, control and monitoring of different geographical territories in line with the pattern of capitalist can order their requirements in different geographical areas. In fact, today the west discourse to promote the idea of capitalism has many geographical territories to recruit in line with the goals of capitalist system. Authors believe that the discursive territoriality is a useful analysis tool for explaining how to change the map of the south-west Asia (map 1, 1625 ad., before the treaty of Westphalia) to the present (2015 m.). The main argument of the paper is on this basis that the west discourses are in the needs of its discursive to product space in the south-west Asia.. In other words, this time the west seeks their goals and strategies through its discourse to institutionalize that rather than through force and violence (hard power) to territoriality. The south west Asian players who played this role for the west, without the slightest feeling of being in line with the goals of the west, want to find out their own. The first signifier of west discourse for the territoriality of the south-west Asia was based on colonialism factor,. However, this was not the end and the post-colonial period in nationalism for the territoriality of their favorite. But the most dangerous tool for the territoriality of the west in south west Asia, which now has also affected the area, is factor of religion. In the texts associated with political geography and geopolitics, the element of space has attracted much attention for key character in this field, but it has been somewhat neglected in the role of the “thought ". This paper tries to show what it is, right as this issue noted: how are general ideas and political and geopolitical ideas in particular with shaping particular discourses in the spatial consequences. It soon becomes operational across the territory, starting in the territoriality. The main principle in the territoriality is strategy and purpose not merely the geographical distribution of idea. The main argument of this paper is that the political thoughts shape the geographical origin of particular discourses and if ideas, discourses or other geographical areas, adopted the ideas of thought, even as imperfect or even native to the steps, but still not get rid of the spatial effects of that idea.

In recent years, the role of urban landscape in producing more tourism revenue has been considered by researchers in the field of tourism and urban planning, especially in developed countries as pioneers of urban tourism development. Current research is a start for emphasizing urban tourism and its role in attracting more tourists and flourishing urban tourism. Research methodologies in this area had divergence of approach and the role of urban landscape in urban tourism has not been emphasized. This paper is an attempt to study the most current scientific literature in this area and present the result of their analysis in a descriptive, analytic, and documentary. The goal was to present the most suitable methods and tools for studying the role of urban tourism in urban tourism. The result is that urban landscape has impacts on the mental image of tourists, their experience, and tourists’ relation with location. The results of study also show that the applications of qualitative methods are preferred. Using observational methods, interview, and picture provides more desirable results. Urban landscape and urban tourism have different dimensions that can be studied by these methods. Usually quantitative methods and questioners do not provide suitable responses.

The lack of a comprehensive evaluation of the enjoyment of and relative level of rural society infrastructures of the contry based on scientific methods and relying on precise information and statistics is the most important barrier on and problem of rural plans. Science some information and statistics needed for the rural society is not subject to censuses in the demography and housing general censuses made by the Iranian center for statistics all over the contry , the indices of this research are provided based on the plan for the census of rural housing specifications made for the 1st time by the Iranian center for statistics and hosing foundation of the Islamic republic of Iran for 28 provinces of the country in summer 2003 .
208 compound indices are identified in the 1st phase of the research , then , with the objective of crediting indices by CV method, the most proper indices are classified under two behavioral and non-behavioral understanding senses, then ,using numerical Taxonomy method and Morris method and through a final combination of these two methods , the rural society of the contry has been classified under three levels: a-Combination of infrastructural , welfare, and development indices infrastructural indices, and c-welfare and development indices, in order to find out opportunities and foreign threads, then, in order to find out domestic factors, including weak and power points, the amount of the distribution of services was verified through denim method. Then, information was combined in swat method and twelve strategies were chosen. Finally, strategies were evaluated and priorities were determined based on strategy of Qualitative programming matrix (SQPM). Seven strategies were given priority one and crash program in view of thought, education, technology, and production.

This paper discusses the qualitative approach in the study of intra-urban travel, and by criticizing the geography of traditional quantitative transportation along with the identification of the need for alternative approaches and attitudes, provides a new understanding of the experiences of daily intra-urban travel. The paper also describes an approach that seeks to discover and retell the temporal-spatial limitations experienced mentally in intra-urban travels through a practical-theoretical dialectical methodology, in order to help the understanding of how travelling habits of people in various structural environments are created and practiced.