This research, with the aim of explaining the sociological factors affecting the attraction of tourists, is to know that society must, in addition to cultural and natural attractions, be in a position to be successful in attracting foreign tourists. In this regard, by designing a theory at different analytical levels and using fuzzy logic, the extraction of sufficient and sufficient conditions for attracting foreign tourists was considered. The results showed that economic, political, social and cultural globalization, internal conflict, social security, infrastructure competitiveness, rule of law, cultural and natural attractiveness of each is a prerequisite for attracting tourists to the macro level. In combined causality, due to more theoretical and empirical coverage, only a causal route of theoretical and experimental significance was recognized. The final equation of the present study showed that social and cultural globalization, political globalization, social security, cultural and natural attractiveness, and competitive ability in infrastructure are a combination of sufficient conditions for attracting tourists in macro level. This combination showed us that the successful countries are above the terms, that is, these conditions are present, but countries that are not successful in attracting tourists are not in a position to combine these conditions.

The aim of this study is to investigate the factors affecting the academic achievement of students based on the data of the international TIMSS test. The method of the study is comparative-quantitative. The sample of the study is comprised of students from the eighth grade of 57 countries participating in the 2015 international TIMSS test. The data has been analyzed using fuzzy logic approach. The results of single and sufficient terms indicated that the condition of the relationship between home and school, the social atmosphere of the school, students' attitudes and educational activities in the classroom alone would be necessary conditions and family background is a sufficient condition for the outcome of the academic achievement. In causative and hybrid causative factors, only one causal path was necessary based on the criteria of theoretical and experimental adequacy (coefficient of coverage and adaptability) of the theoretical and empirical significance. In this causal path, the family background and the relationship between home and school in combination, together, provided a sufficient causative factor for the desired outcomes academic success.

This paper aimed at creating a sufficient theoretical framework and its experimental test for obtaining necessary and sufficient conditions of balance between economic development and equality of higher education. To that end, with extracting causal-conjectural paths, it was tried to specify the ways and factors affecting the balance in divers levels. With regard to approach, this study adopted a comparative- quantitative method and data from 49 countries were analyzed using a fuzzy logic approach. The results of the study of single necessary and sufficient conditions revealed that, for balance between economic development and equality higher education, each of the social cohesion, universalism, control of corruption, rule of law, democracy, Political Stability, industrialization and economic globalization was a necessary condition per se and the scientific efficiency was sufficient conditions. In conjectural and synthetic causation in all, alone one causal- conjectural path, was calculated based on criterias for specifying theoretical and experimental sufficiency (coefficient of coverage and consistency). In all alone, the path showed that had the necessary theoretical and experimental importance. results revealed that in the causal path, industrialization, scientific efficiency, rule of law, democracy and Political Stability in combination with other factors provided sufficient conjectural causation in the creation of the required result (balance between economic development and equality of higher education).

Violence, the external symbol of misuse of power, misuse and unlawful use of it against public rights, laws and universal freedoms have been integral parts of human society and have occurred in various forms throughout the history. We do not have a society free of violence in the history. As many as 5.3 million people are estimated to be victims of violence worldwide each year. But, despite the fact that violence is a problem in most parts of the world, not all communities have experienced this social reality alike. In some societies, this has become a pervasive issue, while in others, the contradictions in a society have been largely regulated and managed. The purpose of this study is to explain the sociological factors influencing the occurrence of violent crimes at the macro level. In this regard, this paper seeks to understand the causal mechanism of violence by presenting a combined theory. In this study, the author attempts, as far as possible, to provide a model for explaining violence that feeds on the middle and macro analytical levels.

The study method was a qualitative comparative approach used from fuzzy logic. One of the advantages of this method is that it provides the necessary and sufficient conditions for the event to occur and the desired outcome and evaluates the effect of the sum of the causal conditions on the outcome variable. In this study, possible combinations of causal conditions were obtained using fuzzy set software (FS / QCA). The study was conducted in 89 countries. The present study was a cross-sectional and covered data for the period 2010-2016. Data on variables composed of multiple reagent combinations obtained from the column of values calculated by factor analysis of a data column for each single agent. The unit and level of analysis in this study were the country and macro, respectively.           

   In this analysis, in explaining the causal explanation of violence, ten main conditions were considered that out of the multiple causal paths, two causal paths were of theoretical and empirical importance. From the results we can conclude that the combination of economic opportunity conditions, relational capital, democracy, government accountability, government efficiency, rule of law, and cultural opportunity have high explanatory power over the outcome. This claim holds true for both positive and negative aspects (i.e., countries where violence is low and countries where violence is high). In other words, countries where violence is low have a combination of these conditions. Also, in countries where there is a high level of violence, these conditions are not present. A country can be safe from the extensive experience of violent crimes that have causal conditions. The important point to note is that economic equality is not necessarily associated with the outcome in all cases. Probably, with an effective structural adjustment, economic inequality does not necessarily lead to violent crimes. Therefore, the result largely depends on the combination of factors. Overall, this study suggests that the role of structural adjustment and the power of government regulation at the macro level should be emphasized. This is prominent in the rule of law, accountability, and government efficiency. Needless to say, these variables are related to the balanced distribution of the opportunities and give the desired outcome. The results of this study can help us to understand the cause of violent crime in macro level. With the results obtained, practitioners can succeed in policymaking in this area with a greater theoretical and empirical knowledge. Undoubtedly, the results of this study provide us with insights that can be programmed to reduce violent crime.

The present study is an attempt to explain the the mechanisms and social impacts on economic development in the agricultural sector by extracting the causal and hybrid route. The method of this study is comparative-quantitative and the data set of 31 provinces of the country has been analyzed using the fuzzy logic approach. The results of the necessary and sufficient conditions showed that the condition of economic habitus (credit ethics), economic habitus (low imposed traditionalism), economic habitus (low degree of satisfaction), reciprocal economic action (work), reciprocal economic action (the expansion of instrumental relations) And the reciprocal economic action (calculation) of each alone is a necessary condition and economic habitat (economic rationality) is a sufficient condition for the outcome (agricultural development). In the causal and hybrid causalities, four causal paths of Ali were necessary based on the theoretical and experimental adequacy criteria (coefficient of coverage and adaptability), and the essential causative components that have an appropriate compatibility and coverage index, the condition of economic habitus (credit ethics ) Is common and is introduced as a necessary final condition.

Corruption as one of the realities of today's society has had unprecedented growth in the administrative, political and economic systems of the world and according to the International Transparency Institute, no region or country in the world is immune to corruption. In this article, with theoretical speculations, we are looking for a comparative study of the necessary and sufficient conditions for the necessary outcome: the control of macroeconomic corruption. Based on the theoretical framework, we have identified three dimensions or three constraints for corruption control: the rule of law, political development, and economic development. The methodology of this research is qualitative and comparative. The data of 14 countries have been analyzed using a fuzzy approach and include positive and negative cases. Research findings suggest that the rule of law, political development, and economic development are each a necessary condition for the outcome of corruption control. In causal and hybrid causalities, only one causal route was necessary based on adequacy and the index of compatibility and cover index. In this causal direction, the rule of law, political development, and economic development combined provided the necessary causality to produce the desired result. Compatibility index of the remaining rout is 0.97 and it covers 84% of the changes in the variable which is of acceptable theoretical and empirical importance. Therefore, generally, these causes have significant explanatory power in the analysis of the countries under investigation.

In the Avicennian system of logic, the types of propositions are exclusive to categorical propositions, conjunctive conditional propositions, and disjunctive conditional propositions. So, this important question arises: Why Avicennian logicians have not addressed conjunctions? Our attempt in the current research is, to provide an acceptable answer to the question. In the Avicennian logic, the criterion for a sentence being a proposition is that by saying it, a single judgment is expressed by the speaker. According to the criterion, categorical and conditional propositions are considered to be types of proposition because expressing them implies only a single judgment. As a result, conjunctive propositions cannot be placed as a type of propositions, next to categorical and conditional propositions; because unlike the parts of conditional sentences, which do not have truth value, expressing a conjunctive proposition implies several judgment, and its parts have truth value during the combination.

Like most Muslim philosophers, ‘Allāmah Ṭabāṭabā’ī considers the principle of causality as a necessary proposition and counts it among the primary self-evident propositions, deeming its denial as departing from human nature. He views the principle of causality as irrefutable and distinct from the issue of basis of need. In line with this perspective, the main focus of the current research is to present and examine the most significant epistemological discussions around the principle of causality, with an emphasis on ‘Allāmah Ṭabāṭabā’ī's viewpoint. The key epistemological issues related to this principle are crystallized in its epistemological characteristics. Therefore, after reviewing various interpretations of the principle of causality in the introduction, we examine its epistemological characteristics (such as necessity, primary self-evidence, irrefutability, and analytical or compound nature) and elucidate its reasoning.The accomplishment of this study lies in the impossibility of establishing a real proof to demonstrate the principle of causality. Any argument put forth for its establishment, even if based on probabilities, is just to bring it to awareness or dialectical. This is because the validity of any argument, whether for or against, is based on accepting this principle, and without it, no argument can be established.

One of the important issues in the development of any kind of knowledge including Geomorphology is the introduction of new viewpoints and special conceptualization in that field. Introduction of relativism in philosophy, language and sociology has brought about deep evolutions in the epistemology of the research methodology and the utility of these sciences. Although this viewpoint was traditionally introduced in Geomorphology first by the American scientist G.K. Gilbert one hundred and thirty years ago, temporal conditions did not provide for the development and understanding of the depth of his conceptions for others. Recognition of Gilbert’s views and its comparison with relativism concepts in this age can familiarize us with Gilbert’s thought and the evolutions it made in relativism concept. Besides, it can prevent us from considering Gilbert’s relativism to be in parallel with many concepts introduced by others.
The purpose of this article is recognition of the depth of Gilbert’s transcendental meditation and the difference of his opinion with the dominant scientific thinking in the era of Davis. Obviously, to know the angles such insights can enrich new ways in the epistemological and theoretical literature of Geomorphology.
To recognize the concept of Relativism and compare it with Gilbert’s opinion. It is necessary to check the works of prominent persons in different fields of knowledge on this subject. After theoretical basic review of Relativism, four characters in this field having quite clear and obvious ideas were selected. They were: Hans Gadamer (Hermeneutics), Albert Einstein (Physics), Ludwig Bertalanffy (Systems), and Mulla Sadra (Mysticism and illumination). Then their original texts about the concept of Relativism were separated and their views were analyzed. Finally, we compared them with Gilbert’s opinion and extracted their differences and similarities.
Relativism has not been expressed in the fields of knowledge and methodology nor even as a skill in a common concept. In general, it can be mentioned in ten whole meanings. Some try to limit it to philosophical issues and others treat it as method.
A. Relativism in the view of Sophists
In this Relativism, the principle of non-contradiction, diverse readings and multi-voice are recognized and it is based on denying the existence of truth and fact.
B. Hermeneutics
Every commentator understands the effect of his/her experiences different from these of the others. In other words, understanding and interpretation are a function of semantic horizon of the commentator, and this is nothing is except "Relativism" in understanding.
C. Sapir-Whorf’s Relativism
This theory explains another aspect of relativism. Based on this, people do not take an equal understanding from a single external mental phenomenon, unless they are similar Language background.
C. Scientific Relativism (Einstein)
Concepts such as time, place and gravity are considered different based on the physical condition they are supervised in. They are regarded to have a changeable nature. In other words, based on this theory, there is no absolute time, and consequently, nor any absolute temporal coincidence. Moreover, time is not the same in the two systems that are not connected to each other (Shaleh, 1346:137).
D. Relativism systemic in epistemology
The external existence of phenomena and their objectivity are authenticated. Frist special totality is supposed as the system. Then each of the elements is evaluated are with the others or with the whole system.
Q. Allometric
In this field, effort of the researcher is focused to understand the relation of the phenomena with each other.
E. Divine Relativism
This Relativism expresses how a phenomenon and its emanation are effective in the observer’s understanding.
F. Genette relativism
This Relativism expresses that a researcher is not affect in the recognition phenomenon.
G. Relativism in scale
This technique consider the view point of cognition within the framework of special relativity and uses it to describe the reality of object.
J. Gilbert’s of Relativism in Geomorphology
The understanding of a phenomenon depends on the observer and his/her thought, and cognition cannot be treated as rigid and absolute matter. According to the researcher’s previous take of science, his/her conclusion differs from a phenomenon would differ.
Comparison between 9 relativism trends and Gilbert’s relativism resulted in the following findings (similarities and differences between each trend and Gilbert’s relativism): Comparison between Sophistēs’ relativism and Gilbert’s relativism
- Human’s thought background is the criterion for knowledge.
- They acknowledge objective and experimental realities.
Comparison between hermeneutists’ relativism and Gilbert’s relativism
- Introduction of “mental background” and researcher “outcome” in the knowledge of phenomena is emphasized.
Comparison between Sapir–Whorf’s relativism and Gilbert’s relativism
- Researcher “outcome” is influential in the knowledge of phenomena.
Comparison between scientific relativism and Gilbert’s relativism
- Different objective data derived from a single phenomenon result in relativism in knowledge.
Comparison between relativism in systemic epistemology and Gilbert’s relativism
- Relationship between phenomena is by its own an expression of relativism.
- They also believe in the denial of the necessity of structure in the phenomena.
Comparison between relativism in Allometry and Gilbert’s relativism
- Relationship between phenomena is apart from the supervisor’s mind.
Comparison between Sacred relativism and Gilbert’s relativism
- Part of the knowledge in the person who knows is related to what is known.
Comparison between Genetic relativism and Gilbert’s relativism
- In Gilbert’s viewpoint, knowledge depends on the researcher.
Comparison between Relativism in scale and Gilbert’s relativism
- In Gilbert’s view, relativism is not digital and numerical.
The results show that:• Gilbert is the first Geomorphologist who has applied the concept of relativism a transcendentally and deeply in his methodology 130 years ago (1886).
• Ten independent concepts of epistemic relativism have been used in various systems.