غلامحسین صفری

In this study, residues of chlorpyrifos and diazinon pesticides in 10 apple and 6 grape samples from Maragheh County were analyzed using the GC/MS technique after extraction via the QuEChERS method, known for its convenience, speed, effectiveness, and safety. The study also evaluated the impact of washing treatments on pesticide residue levels and conducted health risk assessments using a Monte Carlo simulation for adults and children. Results revealed the detection of chlorpyrifos and diazinon residues in all 32 apple and grape samples across both washed and unwashed treatments. In 95% (19 samples) and 100% (20 samples) of apple samples, average chlorpyrifos and diazinon residues were below the Iranian maximum residue limit (MRL), whereas 41.67% (5 samples) and 33.33% (4 samples) of grape samples exceeded the MRL. Following washing, chlorpyrifos residues in apple samples decreased by 42.02% and diazinon by 53.84%, while in grape samples, reductions were 39.70% for chlorpyrifos and 46.15% for diazinon. Highest Hazard Quotient (HQ) values for adults and children were observed in apple samples with chlorpyrifos (0.51 and 0.12, respectively) and diazinon (0.45 and 0.105, respectively). Cumulative risk assessment for chlorpyrifos and diazinon pesticide residues indicated no significant health risks for either age group. However, given the widespread use of pesticides, ongoing monitoring is essential to mitigate residues in fruits and vegetables.

Water is essential for human life and public health because up to 60% of the adult human body is made up of water. However, much of the world's population does not have access to sufficient and safe drinking water. The most common waterborne diseases are diarrheal diseases such as cholera, typhoid, paratyphoid, salmonella, giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Also, health risks may be caused by chemical and radioactive compounds of water. In fact, some chemicals dissolved in water may be essential substances for food consumption, and some may be harmful in higher than permissible concentrations. These compounds can include various metals, synthetic organic materials and essential elements such as fluoride, iodine and selenium. This is why drinking water quality is a global health concern, especially in developing countries. This review study was conducted with the aim of reviewing the current and past researches in the field of waterborne diseases and most importantly the effective factors in transmitted diseases as well as methods of prevention and finally identifying potential gaps in studies related to waterborne diseases. The review of the literature showed that unsafe water and lack of access to basic sanitation facilities are the main causes of the outbreak of water-borne diseases. Improving drinking water conditions, proper sanitary facilities, especially sanitary disposal of feces, leads to the reduction of water-borne diseases.

The residues of Moinfos and Ethion pesticides in 20 samples of apples and 12 samples of grapes, in two treatments, unwashed and washed, after extraction with a convenient, fast, effective, and safe analytical method (QuEChERS) were analyzed using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Also, the health risk assessment of pesticide residues in apple and grape samples was done using the hazard quotient (HQ) and based on the Monte Carlo simulation for two age groups of adults and children. The results showed that the average residue of ethion in unwashed apple and grape samples was lower than the maximum residue levels of the MRLs of Iran. While, the average residue of Moinphos in unwashed apple and grape samples was higher than the MRLs of Iran. Also, the pesticide residues of Ethion and Moinfos in 100% of the apple and grape samples were higher than the MRL of the European Union. After washing, the average residue of Moinfos and Ethion pesticides decreased by 47 and 45% in apple samples and 44 and 42% in grape samples, respectively. The results of risk assessment based on Monte Carlo simulation showed that the HQ value is less than one with 100% certainty in the age groups of children and adults. Therefore, the consumption of apples and grapes with these two pesticides does not pose any significant risk to the health of consumers. However, due to the use of numerous pesticides, continuous and accurate monitoring and strict regulations regarding the quality and safety of fruits are recommended.

Iron and manganese are common natural minerals that are primarily found in groundwater, especially in deeper wells. Iron and manganese in drinking water, at permissible levels, do not pose a risk to human health. Instead, they both have secondary or recommended drinking water standards because they lead to aesthetic problems that may make the water undesirable and unpleasant for drinking and other domestic uses. The presence of both often causes stains on clothes, and the loss of color in plumbing installations, as well as creates an unpleasant taste and appearance in drinking water. The iron and manganese in the water cannot be seen with the naked eye, and the water appears practically clear and unpolluted, but if they are mixed with oxygen, they quickly lead to the creation of orange, brown, or black spots. The black stains are caused by the presence of manganese, and the brown and orange stains are caused by the presence of iron in the water. Removal methods depend on the concentration and form of iron and manganese in the water. Therefore, it is important to carefully test the water and determine the type and amount of iron and manganese before treatment. Considering the importance of these elements in drinking water, the purpose of this review article is to investigate the sources, standards, types, health and environmental effects, and methods of removing or reducing iron and manganese in drinking water.

One of the most common problems is water quality management of seas and reservoirs around the world. About 30-40% of lakes and reservoirs worldwide are affected by abnormally high nutrients. Eutrophic phenomena are caused by an excess of nutrients in an aquatic system, especially by nitrogen and phosphorus, especially in lakes, estuaries and slow streams. Due to the excessive consumption of fertilizers and the discharge of untreated urban and industrial wastewater into water sources, the extent of eutrophication processes has increased significantly since the middle of the last century. One of the obvious signs of eutrophication is dense algal blooms, which cause high turbidity in water systems, decrease of oxygen and increase of hypoxia conditions in the inner parts of water bodies due to the sediments. In addition, extensive development of blue-green cyanobacteria, reduction of biodiversity, formation of hydrogen sulfide, increase in fish mortality, unpleasant odor, and increased phytoplankton and other aquatic plants, are other effects of eutrophication on the ecosystem. The main nutrients of interest are nitrogen and phosphorus, both of which are essential for algal growth, but the role of phosphorus is more critical because many cyanobacteria can obtain the nitrogen, they need from atmospheric nitrogen through nitrogen fixation. Therefore, most of the eutrophication control measures are directed towards reducing phosphorus. The purpose of this study is to investigate the types, causes, stages and factors, and finally solutions to control, modify and prevent the process of eutrophication.

Cosmetics are products that are applied to the body or face to improve appearance. The concept of beauty and makeup is as old as mankind and civilization. All kinds of beauty products such as skin care products, hair products, and perfumes may contain toxic chemicals that can be harmful to human health, especially women. Most cosmetic products contain dangerous chemicals such as parabens, coal tar dyes, phthalates, perfumes, and some heavy metals such as lead, nickel, cadmium, and mercury. Bioaccumulation of these harmful chemicals and metals in the body over time has been associated with cancer, reproductive and developmental disorders, contact dermatitis, hair loss, lung damage, allergies, etc. At present, cosmetic industries have increased the use of compounds with preservative functions, surfactants, perfumes, stains, etc. in the formulation of cosmetic products. Such substances enhance the quality, properties, and durability of cosmetics, but on the other hand, many of these substances are toxic to the human body and pose health risks ranging from simple mild allergic reactions to an anaphylactic process or even fatal poisoning. Therefore, the indiscriminate use of cosmetics may present itself as an emerging public health issue.Along with the increase in the use of cosmetic products and exposure to their ingredients for a long time and repeatedly, the side effects caused by these products are increasing in the population around the world. Women and men around the world use numerous of cosmetics and health products to achieve beauty, ignoring the possible health risks. Also, cosmetics are emerging pollutants and their environmental monitoring is in the early stages. However, it is known that they enter the environment through multiple routes, often through water, which poses health risks to marine and freshwater ecosystems and ultimately to humans. Hence, in the science of public health, the term “cosmetovigilance" began to represent a type of health supervision in which the goal is to ensure the safety of cosmetic products for commercial purposes. This monitoring is very important for the control of potentially dangerous substances and therefore can put our minds at ease about the products released on the market.In today's world, the importance of taking care of skin, hair, and beauty has doubled. Of course, beauty has a meaning along with health. Using and buying cosmetics and skin care products has become one of the attractive daily activities of most women, but perhaps few people pay attention to the fact that cosmetics can affect the health of women of all ages and even the health of the fetus during pregnancy. Among a wide range of different brands and products, it is very important to choose the right cosmetics and to know the type of skin and the type of makeup that looks natural and ensures the health of our skin. Using the right cosmetics has benefits such as reducing acne symptoms; skin care against the sun's ultraviolet rays; reducing sweating and bad body odor; increasing the beauty of the appearance; reducing bad breath; Reduction of skin bacteria etc. On the other hand, using inappropriate cosmetics can cause disadvantages such as skin diseases and allergies; damage to eyes, skin, and hair; nail weakness; Cancer and other chronic diseases; premature aging; Headache; risk to genital organs; Addiction to cosmetics and etc.The indiscriminate use of cosmetics and health products around the world has led to an increase in the types of chemicals used in the manufacture of these products. Therefore, the risk of poisoning, allergic processes, long-term exposure to chemicals, and side effects from excessive use of cosmetic products also increases. Therefore, considering the importance of chemicals in cosmetics and their health effects on human health, this study was conducted with the aim of investigating the health effects of cosmetics and health products on human health.

The current research is a descriptive-review study whose data was obtained through library studies and different sources were used to process the materials. Considering the importance of chemical substances in cosmetics and their frequent use and their health effects on human health, we tried to use the most relevant and up-to-date sources containing valuable tips regarding the products as much as possible cosmetics and their effects on human health. In this review study, the classification of cosmetics and their effects have been discussed first. Then the harmful substances in the cosmetics were investigated and then the ingredients prohibited in the composition of the cosmetics were pointed out and then the topics related to the health and environmental hazards of some chemicals in the cosmetics were studied. Finally, necessary solutions and recommendations were presented in order to reduce the adverse effects of cosmetics on human health.

Cosmetics and beauty products, although not essential for physical health, help a lot in providing mental health and self-confidence. They are widely used in all countries of the world, especially among women of all ages, even with awareness of their harmful effects on human health. In addition, cosmetics and beauty products are used even by children and elderly people who are more exposed to toxicity due to the easier absorption of chemicals and toxic substances through their skin. Cosmetic products are not very good for human health because they contain more than 10,000 substances that can be linked to disease. Due to the continuous use of cosmetics, people are exposed to side effects such as skin rashes, contact dermatitis, allergies, skin redness, high blood pressure, diabetes, kidney failure and cancer, type IV hypersensitivity, etc., which are toxic substances. Used in the preparation of related cosmetics.The contents of chemicals and heavy metals in cosmetic products may harm consumers. Various studies as well as this research showed that cosmetic products may contain or absorb heavy metals, which can be a potential global threat to people's health and hygiene. It has also been proven that the long-term effect of using cosmetic products has the capacity to affect the health of the consumer. Therefore, long-term continuous use of cosmetic products should be avoided because the heavy metals in these products, such as mercury, lead, arsenic and cadmium, are easily absorbed through the skin. Products containing heavy metals can lead to the development of diseases. A large number of chemicals are incorporated into the complex formulation of cosmetic products to improve the beauty, health, and quality of human life. However, based on a review of the literature related to cosmetics and this study, many of these substances, especially heavy metals, are bioactive and environmentally persistent and show potential bioaccumulation, meaning any traces of exposure accumulate. Heavy metals are stored in bones and remain in our bodies for decades. There is no completely safe and effective way to detoxify heavy metals. Therefore, excessive, extensive, and long-term exposure to such compounds can be a serious threat to human health and the environment.Also, the chemicals used in cosmetic products have a direct effect on the hormonal systems of the human body. People should be warned about the presence of toxic substances in cosmetic products. The implementation of a global cosmetic care system is crucial to encourage changes and reforms in the production, marketing and use of cosmetic products by the general population. Such a system increases the safety of these products and their ingredients and prevents the adverse effects of these products. Also, more comprehensive studies should be conducted on the acute or chronic toxicity of these worrisome pollutants to enable more careful monitoring and explicit inspection of their tangible health and environmental risks. It is very important to conduct studies to investigate the adverse effects of cosmetics. It is recommended that researchers around the world, especially from developing and underdeveloped countries, conduct more recent studies, especially on the adverse effects of cosmetics. Finally, information about the environmental and health impacts of cosmetic products on their packaging will reassure consumers and encourage more conscious and responsible use of these products, and consumers should also play their role by keeping their knowledge and awareness of the ingredients up to date to perform in the products it uses.

Today, the world is facing a huge crisis due to the increase in global energy demand and the greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions caused by the use of fossil fuels. The consumption of energy carriers produces large amounts of carbon dioxide and other pollutants that pollute the environment. According to the reports of the World Energy Organization in 2019, the amount of carbon dioxide emissions has increased by 0.5% and primary energy consumption by 1.3% worldwide, which can be a warning for humans and the environment. On the other hand, most of the world's energy needs are provided by oil, coal and natural gas resources, all of which are limited and will be exhausted in a short time with the current consumption. The severe decrease in fossil fuel resources, the industrialization of most countries, their dependence on energy, and as a result the increase in the global price of fuel, on the one hand, has caused an energy crisis, and on the other hand, the increase in fuel consumption and inaccuracy in the way it is used has caused It has become a global environmental crisis. Therefore, the energy crisis, pollution and environmental effects caused by the use of fossil fuels have caused humankind to look for new sources of renewable energy, which is a type of renewable energy, biofuels. Biofuels are classified into four categories of first, second, third and fourth generation biofuels based on the raw materials used in their production. The first generation biofuels include biomass related to food products, while the second generation includes lignocellulosic biomass. The third generation has potentially renewable resources in the form of algal biomass, while the fourth generation includes genetically modified (GM) algal biomass. The main purpose of the article is to review the various sources of biofuels, compare different generations of biofuels and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of different types of biofuels.

Waste can be described as any type of material or object that has no other use and is to be thrown away. Perspective, the generation of waste materials is unavoidable in a consumption-based society, and it makes waste management a major challenge considering the huge amounts of waste produced globally. In fact, in 2014, about 2.6 billion tons of waste was generated in the European Union (EU), of which 41% was disposed of in landfills, 36% was recycled, 10% was used in excavation operations, 7% was treated in sewage treatment plants and the remaining of 6% was burned for creating energy or oxidation and stabilization of waste. Accordingly, in recent decades, humanity has changed its focus on traditional waste management from the concept of "collection and disposal" in favor of hierarchical management of waste to increase sustainability.Nevertheless, even when environmentally friendly practices such as recycling and reuse are carried out, many operations are "downcycling", meaning that the recycled product has less economic value than its original objective, and is not as valuable as the original product made from strong raw materials. In this way, the linear economy model based on the pyramidal hierarchy of waste materials, which is used today, also has limitations. Indeed, there are still opportunities to increase productivity in many industrial processes, but these gains are likely to be increasingly marginal and undifferentiated. Therefore, the future acceptance of the circular economy concept, as opposed to the current linear model, is a necessary paradigm shift. This new concept is increasingly considered a source of innovation in products, processes, and business models and opens up great opportunities that should be used by companies and organizations as competitive advantages in a dynamic market to be used globally. The processing of raw biomass to produce energy, fuel and chemicals through a combination of different applied technologies is considered a promising path to achieve sustainable waste management, with many environmental and economic benefits. The main processes related to energy recovery and biofuel production are considered under the concept of biorefineries. This waste biorefineries are facilities that integrate the necessary technologies to convert biomass feedstock and other waste into usable products, ensuring that the circular economy moves from theory to the real world. Existing waste streams can be converted to biofuels (waste-to-liquids, WtL) or energy (waste-to-energy, WtE) technologies, both of which are expected to be a key element in future waste management. In general, energy and biofuel production technologies from waste are classified into three main thermochemical, biological and chemical processes. Thermochemical technologies include processes of combustion/incineration, gasification, steam explosion, pyrolysis, hydrothermal liquefaction, and torrefaction; biological technologies include the processes of anaerobic digestion, fermentation, enzyme purification, and microbial electrolysis, and chemical technologies include hydrolysis, solvent extraction, transesterification, and supercritical conversion.

The present research is a descriptive-review study whose data was obtained through library studies and various sources were used to process the material. Considering the importance of biofuels as a source of renewable energy, we tried to use as much as possible the most relevant and up-to-date sources containing valuable points regarding the types of energy and biofuel production technologies from biomass. In this review article, the possibility of using the remaining post-processed waste as available and low-cost bio-renewable resources in waste bio-refineries has been investigated. Waste biorefineries are facilities that integrate the necessary technologies to convert biomass feedstock and other waste into usable products, ensuring that the circular economy moves from theory to the real world. Existing waste streams can be converted to biofuels (waste-to-liquids, WtL) or energy (waste-to-energy, WtE) technologies, both of which are expected to be a key element in future waste management. Accordingly, in this paper, we briefly study the current status of the main WtL and WtE technologies in order to use them as a tool for the management of residual post-processing wastes and by-products resulting from them, and finally about Future developments on the mentioned technical options are briefly discussed.

In this review research, the possibility of using the remaining waste after processing as abundant and low-cost bio-renewable resources in waste bio-refineries in the future was investigated. Existing waste streams have a complex and diverse composition according to their source, which require new logistics platforms of classification and valuation. With the exhaustion of the linear economy of "collection and disposal", new methods of waste management are inevitable in the long term. In this way, waste biorefineries that generate green energy and produce virtual products with high value and zero waste (no waste) in a "closed loop" and "up-cycling" approach are the "landfills" of the future. It is expected that they will be very important and vital in bringing sustainable waste management into the real world that will allow transformative economic growth under the concept of circular economy. However, from the technologies reviewed, it can be concluded that individual WtL and WtE processes are almost always limited in their scope and produce multiple unwanted products. In this regard, the gasification process is largely considered a technology with greater potential and scope in individual applications. However, even this process has drawbacks such as reactor design, feed system, and bitumen production that require costly post-treatment and/or further technical improvements. In contrast, the combination of several WtE and WtL processes in an integrated waste biorefinery allows reducing and eliminate the drawbacks of each process. For example, in gasification, some of the unwanted materials produced may be used and valued by further chemical processing, and even syngas can be upgraded. This new pyramid of waste valorization creates opportunities for specific technologies such as explosive depressurization and drying to become practical applications by reinforcing other well-established technologies in an integrated approach. Future research should primarily focus on establishing a hierarchy of processes to produce the highest value products, and then gradually progress to low-cost products and energy production. However, for this vision to become a reality, an increased effort by researchers is required with continued and sustained support from all potential stakeholders. More pilot or semi-pilot scale demonstration projects should be realized in the coming years, focusing on aspects such as energy balance and cost-benefit analysis that will ensure the viability of the proposed solutions

One of the most important issues that all the countries of the world are dealing with today is the issue of energy supply. Energy supply is one of the most basic prerequisites for social development and economic growth of many societies, especially developing countries, and access to economically sustainable and environmentally friendly energy sources seems necessary in today''''s conditions. The decrease in fossil resource reserves and the increase in the price of oil and its products, as well as the need to pay attention to the reduction of environmental pollution caused by fossil fuels, have encouraged the countries of the world to use renewable and clean energies. Biofuels are one of the renewable resources that have attracted the attention of many European and American countries. Substitution of fossil fuels with biofuels has the potential to reduce some of the adverse environmental impacts of fossil fuel production and use, including emissions of conventional pollutants and greenhouse gases, depletion of finite resources, and dependence on unstable external suppliers. In addition to environmental benefits, the use of suitable biofuels can bring economic benefits such as reducing agricultural surplus reserves, reducing unemployment and dependence on imported oil, rural development, sustainable agriculture, etc. In the current study, after introducing and expressing the characteristics of two common biofuels, biodiesel and bioethanol, the general advantages and disadvantages of using biofuels, the economic, social and environmental considerations of using biofuels have been discussed.

Pesticides are substances in liquid, solid or gas form that are used to destroy pests. Some of these pests that are not liked by humans are insects, weeds and microbes that destroy plants. The negative effect of pesticides on the environment has been fully proven, and the resistance of pesticides in the environment and their non-degradation have endangered the lives of many living organisms.Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are chemical substances that remain in the environment for a relatively long time and upon entering the food chain, accumulate in living tissues and have adverse effects on human health and the environment. In general, these compounds are produced by human activities in different ways.The most famous persistent organic pollutants include chlorine, aldrin, crodan, dedet, dieldrin, dioxin, andrin, norans, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, Mirex, toxaphene, polychloride, biphenyls pesticides.So that by optimal and standard use and reducing the use of such chemical poisons (use of biological control methods) we can reduce the harmful effects on the environment.

Housing health is one of the most significant factors in improving the quality of life in human societies. Achieving development and progress is possible by paying attention to the health of society people. Therefore, the observance of healthy principles in all aspects of life, including housing, must be considered. This study aimed to investigate the housing health status in rural areas of Bonab County. In this cross-sectional descriptive study, the target population was all 29 villages of Bonab County with 14532 households and 47596 people. From this target population, 14 villages with 10322 households and a population of 34197 people chose as a statistical population through systematic random sampling. Data was collected using interviewing, observing, measuring, and completing the standard checklist of environmental and occupational health status. Finally, the collected data were statistically analyzed using version 22 of SPSS software. The results showed that 95.9% of rural dwellings had more than 70 m2, and the area of residential rooms was appropriate to the user population in more than 95% of households. 49.92% of the buildings were made with substandard materials (sun-dried brick 3%, block 27%, and wood 19%). 100% of residents had access to safe drinking water. 100% of residents collected and disposed of domestic wastewater, and solid waste, in a sanitary manner. Also, 100% of livestock households collected and disposed of their animal waste in a sanitary manner. More than 90% of rural households were in good condition and hygienic in terms of various parameters of residential rooms (floor, wall, ceiling, and light). 100% of rural families using natural gas as fuel. The statues of the bathroom and kitchen were healthy in 93.92% and 88% of households, respectively. However, 6.08% of households did not have a kitchen and 1.46% did not have a bathroom inside the house. In general, although most of the housing health indicators in the studied villages were in a good and acceptable condition, but the buildings are not in a good and acceptable condition in terms of the type of building materials and safety and strength.

Road transportation uses notable amounts of fossil fuels and accounts for a remarkable share of CO2 emissions and other pollutants worldwide. The transportation sector uses nearly 20% to 25 of global energy and is responsible for approximately 25% of global energy-related CO2 emissions, 75% of which is disseminated via road transport. Eco-driving is one of the 40 measures that should contribute to a 60% reduction in emissions of traffic-related pollutants by 2050. Eco-driving technology can be considered as a set of choices and behaviors adopted by drivers in order to energy-saving and environmental protection. This approach is a relatively inexpensive and immediate measure to dramatically reduce fuel consumption and emissions of pollutants. The finding of researches in this field indicate that although the efficiency of car engines has been developed due to recent technological advances and the integration of new types of fuels, but the behavior of drivers has not improved in line with this development. Thus, it is expected to with proper training and information of drivers, this procedure leads to further reduce fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. The main factors affecting eco-driving include acceleration/deceleration, driving speed, route select and idling. The present research is a study review in which data were obtained through library studies. The purpose of this study is to review and compare the major factors influencing the implementation of eco-driving technology. Finally, the challenges and future research for eco-driving technology are proposed. Therefore, due to the high price of fuel and the concern of conserving natural resources and energy, eco-driving technology is one of the best and most rational approaches for sustainable development, energy conservation and environmental protection.

Children are more susceptible and vulnerable to environmental pollutants relative to adults. Due to their unique physiological and behavioral characteristics, children are easier to be exposed to environmental pollutants than the general population. Children are more sensitive to chemical exposure as their organs are still developing and not yet mature and their immune systems and detoxification mechanisms are weaker than adults. The purpose of this study is to investigate the types of heavy metals (such as lead, mercury, cadmium and arsenic), their sources, possible routes of exposure and entry of heavy metals into children's bodies, the vulnerability of children to heavy metals and the adverse effects of heavy metals on children's health. Entry of heavy metals to the body occurs through inhalation of contaminated air, dermal absorption, consumption of contaminated food, and drinking of contaminated water. Exposure of children to heavy metals has adverse impacts on their health. The entry of heavy metals into children's bodies affects not only the physical development of children but also their nervous system, kidneys, and bones. Exposure to heavy metals during pregnancy and childhood leads to unfavorable brain development and increases the risk of neurodevelopmental disorders and so-called autism in children. Many of these metals lead to mental retardation and neurological disorders in children due to memory problems and low IQ. Because of the detrimental health effects of heavy metals on children, efforts should be made to curb their pollution or release to the environment through stringent laws and regulations.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the trend of changes in environmental health indicators in rural areas of Uremia County and West Azerbaijan province during the years 2015-2019. The present study is longitudinal retrospective research that was conducted using the data available in the Environmental Health Department of the Health Center of Uremia County and West Azerbaijan province over a period of 5 years. Data analysis was performed using descriptive statistics indicators such as mean as well as Kolmogorov-Smirnov, Friedman and Wilcoxon one-sample statistical tests using SPSS software version 26. Studied indicators in this research include the percentage of rural households with access to drinking water, public plumbing network, sanitary toilets, Sanitary collection and disposal of wastewater, solid waste and animal excrement, desirability of microbial and chemical samples, Measurement of residual chlorine, food preparation, distribution and sales centers and public places with health criteria and employees of centers and places with a valid medical card. The average percentage of desirability of these indicators in the 5-year period in the villages of Uremia County was 99.04%, 92.44%, 81.82%, 65.24%, 80.32%, 98.61%, 95.32%, 79%, 97.28%, 78.84%, 78.92% and 86.22%, respectively. The upward and downward trend of environmental health indicators in the villages of Uremia County, as well as West Azerbaijan province in a period of 5 years was equal to 50% and 41.66%, respectively. The findings of the present research indicated that the trend of changes in 50% of the indicators in rural areas of Uremia and 75% in the rural areas of West Azerbaijan province was significant during five years. The average of 58.33% of the indicators in the villages of Uremia County was lower than the provincial index. Except for the indicators of desirability of water chemical samples, sanitary collection and disposal of animal waste, and food preparation, distribution, and sale centers with hygienic criteria, other environmental health indicators (75%) have a significant difference with the provincial index. The status of most environmental health indicators in the villages of Uremia County and West Azerbaijan province is favorable. Except for indicators of sanitary collection and disposal of wastewater and animal waste, the desirability of 83.33% of the indicators was more than 75% both in the villages of Uremia County and West Azerbaijan province during five years. In general, the results of the present study showed that 50% of environmental health indicators in the villages of Uremia have improved over a period of 5 years, but the desirability of more than 50% of indicators was lower than the provincial index. Therefore, the efforts and participation of authorities, villagers, Islamic councils, environmental health experts, and health workers are necessary to improve environmental health indicators.IntroductionEnvironmental health is one of the main challenges of sustainable development in most countries. The most important health priorities of most countries, especially developing countries in rural areas are sanitary collection and disposal of solid waste, animal waste as well as access to drinking water and sanitary toilets. Environmental health indicators are very essential because they reflect the changing state of people's living environment and the existing health threats. Studies indicated that environmental quality can affect health status and costs. Therefore, improving the environmental situation will have positive effects on the health of the community. The health of individuals in society has positive effects on the standard of living of people, and measuring health indicators is one of the most desirable and appropriate approaches to assess the level of health in a society. Rural society, which accounts for more than 27 percent of the country's population, plays a key role in the country's economic and social life. Given the importance and position of rural society in the country and the problems and challenges that this society faces in the development process, recognizing and analyzing the features of rural development planning in the country is necessary. In the process of rural development planning, attention to rural environmental health is essential and can lead to improving the quality of rural environmental health. Environmental health indicators are very important because they reflect the changing state of people's living environment and the existing health threats. The environmental health status of an area can indicate the status of development or underdevelopment of that area.Improving environmental health indicators in rural areas, in the implementation of rural health development and with the aim of reducing the risk of infectious diseases, play a critical role in improving the quality of life and health of villagers with inter-sectoral cooperation and public participation. In the Islamic Republic of Iran, many programs related to the rural environment have been implemented since 2006. Nevertheless, the evidence suggests that the level of health in rural areas is low. The production of information and indicators on various aspects of health is essential and must be addressed. Assessing and monitoring people's health is one of the most significant principles of public health science, and the health status of a community is measured based on the indicators of the health of that community and the rate of change of these indicators over time.At present, health information related to the environmental health status of rural areas is regularly prepared in the form of statistical forms and health indicators. Despite the great value of these health indicators, the trend of changes in environmental health indicators in rural areas over time has been less analyzed and limited scientific articles have been published in this field. Therefore, according to the mentioned cases, this study was conducted to investigate the trend of changes in environmental health indicators in the villages of Uremia County during a 5-year period (2015-2019).MethodologyUremia County is located in the northwest of Iran, which has 39 comprehensive rural health service centers and 6 urban-rural health service centers, and in total has 200 health houses with 315 health workers and 625 villages. The present study is longitudinal retrospective research that was conducted using the data available in the Environmental Health Department of the Health Center of Uremia County and West Azerbaijan province over a period of 5 years. The data collection tool was a checklist with a list of desired indicators. These indicators are standard values that are calculated and recorded in accordance with the guidelines for environmental and occupational health. These indicators have been selected by environmental health experts and included in this list, so the tools of this study had the necessary validity and reliability. The 12 environmental health indicators studied in this research are the percentage of rural households with access to drinking water, public plumbing network, sanitary toilets, Sanitary collection and disposal of wastewater, solid waste and animal excrement, desirability of microbial and chemical samples, Measurement of residual chlorine, food preparation, distribution and sales centers and public places with health criteria and employees of centers and places with a valid medical card. After collecting data, the indicators were compared with existing provincial indicators. Finally, the data were analyzed using descriptive statistics indicators such as mean as well as Kolmogorov-Smirnov, Friedman and Wilcoxon one-sample statistical tests using SPSS software version 26.ConclusionThe results of this study showed that the trend of changes in 6 environmental health indicators (50%) in the villages of Uremia County and West Azerbaijan province in 2015 compared to 2019, was upward and the trend of changes in 5 indicators (41/66%) was downward. The maximum improvement in the villages of Uremia County was related to the index of public places with health criteria with 10.5% and the maximum decrease was related to the index of access to the public drinking water network with -4.1%. While the maximum increase in the villages of West Azerbaijan province was related to the index of measurement of residual chlorine with 23.5% and the maximum decrease was related to the index of desirability of water chemical samples with -11.7%. The trend of changes in 50% of the indicators in the villages of Uremia County and 75% of the indicators in the villages of West Azerbaijan province was significant during five years. Also, the finding indicated that the average of 7 environmental health indicators (58.33%) in the villages of Uremia County was lower than the provincial index and the average of 5 environmental health indicators (41.67%) was higher. The highest increase was related to the index of water chemical samples with 8.36% and the highest decrease was related to the index of sanitary collection and disposal of animal waste with -3.35%. Except for the indicators of chemical samples of drinking water, sanitary collection and disposal of animal waste and centers of preparation, distribution and sale of food with hygienic criteria, other indicators of environmental health (75%) in the villages of Uremia have a significant different with the provincial index. In general, the results of present study showed that 50% of environmental health indicators in the villages of Uremia have improved over a period of 5 years, but the desirability of more than 50% of indicators was lower than the provincial index and need to be upgraded.

Human civilization has always evolved throughout history with direct access to water resources. Water plays an important role in economic and social developments with its quantitative and qualitative effects. Water has been the axis of sustainable development, which in nature, like energy, is neither created nor destroyed, but transforms from one form to another. One of the problems of the contemporary century that threatens the future of human life is the problem of water shortage. The water crisis is one of the challenges facing the world today. Due to the development of cities and increasing per capita water consumption, a large volume of wastewater is produced. Proper use of this huge water source in non-potable urban uses, in addition to preserving drinking water resources, also prevents environmental pollution. Reuse of treated wastewater for various uses in accordance with environmental standards as a sustainable solution to optimize the management of water consumption in the country is important. The present study is a review study whose data has been obtained through library studies. The purpose of this study is to present and discuss in relation to the sources and types of non-potable urban uses, distribution line guidelines, water quality parameters and the rate of treatment required for wastewater reuse to non-potable urban uses, as well as sociocultural aspects of wastewater reuse. Finally, it must be acknowledged that Iran, as one of the Middle Eastern countries, has experienced a shortage of renewable water resources and is approaching the brink of a water crisis. Therefore, proper management of water resources, optimal use of renewable resources, observance of consumption pattern, use of unconventional water and effluent from wastewater treatment for non-urban drinking purposes, including, irrigation of green space, flash tank toilets, ventilation construction Air conditioning, and firefighting is essential.

FMEA is one of the experienced and very useful methods for identifying, classifying, analyzing faults, and assessing the risks arising from them. This study aims to identify, evaluate, prioritize, and analyze the risks associated with the equipment of Sahand municipal wastewater disinfection unit using traditional and fuzzy FMEA method. The present study is a cross-sectional analytical study that was conducted in a period of about 6 months. First, a team of 5 experts was formed and the traditional FMEA worksheet was completed. Then the fuzzy functions were determined by the MATLAB program according to the opinions of experts and the severity, probability of occurrence, and probability of detection and risk priority number (RPN) became fuzzy. According to the fuzzy logic outputs, the risks were prioritized and corrective measures were proposed according to the type of risk. In this study, a total of 28 faults were identified for chlorination unit equipment. The traditional FMEA results showed that a total of 28 faults (100%) identified for the equipment of the Sahand municipal wastewater chlorination unit is in the low-risk range. While according to the results of fuzzy FMEA, one fault (3.6%) is in the low-risk range, 24 faults (85.7%) are in the medium-risk range and 3 faults (10.7%) are in the high-risk range. The results of the risk assessment of the chlorination unit of Sahand municipal wastewater treatment plant using fuzzy FMEA are more accurate and better compared to traditional FMEA. Using experts’ opinions in risk assessment using fuzzy FMEA leads to more realistic results as well as better and clearer prioritization of corrective actions.

The importance of paying attention to mosques, as sacred places, and the emphasis of Islam on its hygiene is clear ande meeting health criteria in mosques as a public place is essential. In case of not paying enough attention to this issue, mosques can be a center from which pathogens spread and endanger health of the population. The aim of this study was to investigate the environmental health status of mosques in Ahar in 2018. This was a cross-sectional descriptive study. All urban mosques were selected using the census method. Data were collected using a questionnaire of mosques' health regulation through visits and direct observation. The data were analyzed using Excel software. The finding of this study indicated that Ahar's mosques in terms of personal hygiene, instruments and tools and building conditional were favorable in 34.3%, 57.1% and 80% and were undesirable in 14.3%, 8.6% and 11.4%, respectively. Overall, 80% of the mosques had a favorable status (score above 75) and only 8.6% of the mosques had an undesirable status (score below 50). According to the obtained results, the health conditions of studied mosques were relatively desirable. It is recommended that the health status of the places, especially personal hygiene criteria improved, in cooperation with the health authorities and public participation.

 The objective of the study was to monitor the microbial quality of drinking water in rural areas of Mianeh County, determining the access of the rural populations to safe drinking water in terms of microbial quality and the role of Mianeh Rural Water and Wastewater Company (Abfar) in improving quality of drinking water. 50 villages (25 villages under coverage and 25 village's non-coverage by Abfar) were randomly selected based on proportional allocation and one sample from each village per month and a total of 150 samples were analyzed over 3 months based on 4 criteria: total coliform, Fecal coliform (Escherichia coli), free residual chlorine and pH. The findings indicated that the desirability of free residue chlorine in under coverage, non-coverage by Abfar, and total Mianeh’s villages were 28.23, 12.02, and 20.57 %, respectively. The index of lack of Escherichia coli in October and November and December was 92%, 92%, and 100% in the coverage villages, 64%, 84%, and 56% in the non-coverage villages, 78%, 88%, and 78% in all surveyed villages. According to the guidelines of the World Health Organization (WHO and desirability of Escherichia coli index, the microbial quality of drinking water in coverage villages, non-coverage villages by Abfar, and all villages were in the status of excellent (94.66%), poor (68%) and good (81.34%), respectively. In general, the microbial quality of drinking water in the coverage villages was more favorable than the non-coverage villages by Abfar. These results indicate the very important and effective role of the Rural Water and Wastewater Company in providing safe water in rural areas in terms of microbial quality.

Water supply management for drinking and public uses in towns and villages is very important. More than 80% of diseases worldwide are water-borne diseases. Therefore, water quality control and prevention of communicable diseases are very important in the management drinking water supply. The world's population will reach 8.5 billion in 2025. Worldwide, only 38% of people have access to safe drinking water. One of the World Water Organization's (WHO) goals is to provide safe drinking water for all until 2025. Most of the deprived people of safe drinking water live in Asia and Africa, mostly in rural areas.The World Health Organization reported that 1.1 billion people worldwide do not have access to safe sources of safe drinking water and in 2005, about 1.6 million children under the age of 5 (average 4,500 children a day) died from unhealthy and unsanitary drinking water. Also, according to the WHO report, 2.2 million people out of 4 billion people with diarrhea died each year due to lack of access to safe drinking water, of which about 85% live in small communities and villages. Based on scientific findings, insufficient quantity, inadequate quality, and poor sanitation of water resources are the main causes of the occurrence and prevalence of mortality globally, which can be prevented and controlled. Therefore, control of drinking water in rural communities is very important and needs special attention. To our knowledge, so far no comprehensive study has been conducted in Miyaneh County to evaluate the microbial quality of rural water. Therefore, due to the importance of this issue, this study was conducted to provide a clear picture of the microbial quality of drinking water in rural areas of Miyaneh County determining the access of the rural populations to safe drinking water in terms of microbial quality and the role of Mianeh Rural Water and Wastewater Company (Abfar) in improving quality of drinking water.

The target population of this descriptive cross-sectional study was all the villages with the population of Mianeh County. From this target population, 85 villages with health houses have been selected as the study population. From the study population, 50 villages (25 villages covered and 25 villages not covered by Abfar) were randomly selected as statistical populations based on proportional allocation. In this study, a total of 150 drinking water samples were taken over a period of 3 months (one sample from each selected village per month). The microbial quality of drinking water in 50 villages of Mianeh was measured based on 4 criteria, i.e. total coliform (TC), fecal coliform (FC), residual free chlorine, and pH. All steps of sampling, transportation, and experiments were performed according to standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. The cultivation of the samples to evaluate the number of total coliforms and fecal coliforms was performed using the most probable number (MPN) technique and the 9-tube method in two presumptive and confirmed phases. Residual free chlorine and water pH were measured using a DDP test kit in the sampling site. Finally, the statistical analysis of the results was performed by SPSS and Excel software.The results showed that the desirability index for lack of total coliform bacteria test in drinking water in the villages covered by Abfar was 84%, 92%, and 96%, in villages non-covered by Abfar was 64%, 84%, and 52% and in all the surveyed villages was 74%, 88% and 74% in months October, November, and December, respectively. Also, the desirability index for lack of heat-resistant E.coli bacteria test in drinking water in the villages covered by Abfar was 92%, 92%, and 100%, in villages non-covered by Abfar was 64%, 84%, and 56% and in all the surveyed villages was 78%, 88% and 78% in months October, November, and December, respectively (table 2). Based on the results, the percentage of residual free chlorine in the covered, non-covered, and total villages was 28.23, 12.02, and 20.57%, respectively (figure 2). The statistical analysis of results showed that there was a significant difference between the covered and non-covered villages by Abfar in terms of the amount of residual free chlorine and microbial contamination of drinking water to total coliform and fecal coliform (P < 0.001). The pH of drinking water in the covered and non-covered villages by Abfar was in the admissible limit of 6.5-8.5 (figure 3). There was not a significant difference between the covered and non-covered villages by Abfar in terms of pH (P= 0.43). In general, the performance of health workers in the process of drinking water except in daily measurement of residual free chlorine (with 100% coverage) was less than expected. Also, the performance of Abfar in regular and daily chlorination of drinking water in the covered villages was much lower than expected. So that, out of 25 villages covered by Abfar, only drinking water in 9 villages (36%) have been chlorinated, and the average free residual chlorine in 6 to 7 villages (24-28%) was in the admissible limit of 0.5-0.8 mg/L.

According to 2006 guidelines of WHO on evaluation of the microbial quality of drinking water, the microbial quality of drinking water in covered villages was in the excellent range (with the desirability index for lack of E.coli test 94.66%), in non-covered villages was in poor range (with the desirability index for lack of E.coli test 68%) and in all the surveyed villages was in a good range (with the desirability index for lack of E.coli test 81.34%) (Figure 6). In general, despite the poor performance of Abfar in the chlorination of drinking water, the microbial quality of drinking water in covered villages by Abfatr was very favorable compared to non-covered villages. These results indicate the very important and effective role of Abfar in providing safe drinking water in terms of microbial quality in rural areas. Therefore, the necessary measures should be taken to cover the villages by Abfar, as well as regular and continuous chlorination of drinking water in these villages. In addition, the performance of health workers in the process of controlling drinking water should be improved especially in villages with microbial contamination drinking water.(94.66%), poor (68%) and good (81.34%), respectively. In general, the microbial quality of drinking water in the coverage villages was more favorable than the non-coverage villages by Abfar. These results indicate the very important and effective role of the Rural Water and Wastewater Company in providing safe water in rural areas in terms of microbial quality.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the concentration and the Non-carcinogenic risk associated with nitrate in the drinking water of Bostanabad city over different age groups. In this descriptive cross-sectional study, nitrate concentration was measured in 98 drinking water samples (18urban samples and 80 rural samples). Also, Non-carcinogenic risk assessment was determined using the indicators of the Environmental Protection Agency. The mean concentration of nitrate in the drinking water of urban and rural areas of Bostanabad was 10.56 and 14.65 mg/L, respectively. Nitrate concentration in 95.91% of the samples was lower than the standard. The mean Hazard Quotient )HQ( values due to nitrate in drinking water for the four age groups of infants, children, teenager and adults both urban and rural areas were less than one. However, HQ values was more than 1 in 5.5% of urban water samples and in 11.25% of rural water samples over age group of children. According to the results, in most cases, the concentration of nitrate in drinking water was less than the national standard of Iran and the World Health Organization. However, age group of children are at Non-carcinogenic risk from drinking water nitrate.

About 30% of Iranchr(chr('39')39chr('39'))s population lives in rural areas. Management of rural waste is an important component in maintaining health. The aim of this study was to find out the status and problems of rural waste management and compare it with the past in one of the northwestern cities of the country.

The condition of waste management in 20 villages with health houses and a population of over 500 people was analyzed through field visits, checklist completion, interviews with village managers, and review of information from East Azerbaijan Health vice-chancellor.

All villages surveyed had a specific trustee for waste management. Compared to the indicators of 1389, all components related to waste management have been relatively improved. The existence of village manager (Dehyari) is quite effective. Waste collection is done twice a week in 20% and once a week in 25% of the villages at unspecified times. Therefore, the residents are forced to release it in the village, which leads to dispersal of waste and environmental pollution. The status of separation from source and recycling is not favorable. There are many problems in animal waste management, especially in villages without a master plan.

Although good progress has been made in the field of rural waste, but due to the existing problems, training village managers in the field of waste management and educating people as one of the main stakeholders on waste segregation and compost vermicompost production, can solve these problems.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a group of organic pollutants that are mostly generated during the incomplete combustion. The main objective of this study was to characterize potential sources of PAHs in Tehran.
Samples of PM10 were collected at 10 monitoring stations belonging to Tehran Air Quality Control Company (AQCC) and transferred to laboratory for analysis. Besides, a SKC Flite 2 Air Sampling Pump (SKC, USA) equipped with a sampling head and PM10 size-selective inlet was used at four stations to compare the results obtained by collecting AQCC monitors (AQCCMs) tapes with the standard sampling procedures for assessing the interchangeability of two field sampling methods. The principal component analysis (PCA) and diagnostic ratios were applied to identify emission sources and source contribution.
The average diagnostic ratios of phenanthrene (Phe)/ (Phe橻憭ꜞ (Ant)), benzo(a)anthracene (BaA)/ (BaA爚 (Chry)), fluorantene(Flu)/ (FluꜪ� (Py)), and indeno(1,2,3cd) pyrene (IcP)/(IcP淩(ghi)perylene (BghiP)) in samples were 0.79, 0.52, 0.43 and 0.38, respectively. These ratios showed that the combustion, especially fossil fuels and motor vehicles, was the main sources of PAHs emission in Tehran. The results of PCA analysis also indicated that 49, 29 and 22% of PAHs sources in Tehran atmosphere were attributed to gasoline-driven vehicles, diesel vehicles and other sources, respectively.
According to the results, the combustion, especially fossil fuel and motor vehicle, was the main sources of PAHs emission in Tehran.

Heavy metals in surface soil which originate from different sources (e.g. traffic, industrial emission, weathering of building) can be accumulated in human body via inhalation and dermal absorption pathways. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate heavy-metal pollution profile of the soils and assess the soil quality in Zahedan.
Heavy metal concentrations in surface soils were investigated by a cross–sectional study carried out in early autumn 2013. Street dust samples were collected from different areas (5 regions) using a clean plastic dustpan and broom. At each sampling location, 5 subsamples were randomly taken and mixed together to obtain a composite soil sample. In total 50 samples were taken from all regions. The street dust samples were dried at room temperature prior to acid digestion and the concentrations of Zn, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb and Cu were measured using ICP-MS.
Results of analysis showed that in all studied areas; urban park, commercial area, high traffic, residential area and industrial area the concentrations of Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn were 0.01± 0.06, 37.53 ± 6.96, 29.68 ± 10.25, 51.09 ± 8.53, 28.37±6.52 and 184.30 ± 25.94 mg/kg, respectively. The concentrations of Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn in all the regions studied (except residential area) exceed the corresponding background levels (i.e. suburb area).
This study showed that land use significantly increase heavy metal levels of urban soil in Zahedan. The highest concentrations of heavy metals were found in commercial and high traffic areas where the traffic rates are high. Therefore, decrease in traffic rate and improving public transportation may increase quality of urban soils.

Backgrounds and Quantity of trace metals in the wet precipitation can illustrate the environmental pollution of different urban areas. Up to now, there is no study regarding the chemistry of wet precipitation in Tehran .The objectives of this study are: measurement of heavy metal concentrations and identification of the main factors affecting the heavy metal concentrations in wet precipitation using factor analysis method.
This was a cross-sectional study in which measurements of heavy metals were performed in 53 wet precipitation samples collected from a central site of Tehran City, capital of Iran. The samples were collected during November to May in 2010, 2011 and 2012 on the roof of the student’s dormitory building of Tehran University of Medical Sciences and then the concentration of heavy metals in each sample was measured with ICP-MS.
pH ranged from 4.2 to 7.1 with a mean value of 5.1 indicating in acidic range. Result of EF calculations revealed that samples were not enriched with Fe and Cr but were enriched with Zn, Cd, Ni, Pb and Cu. Factor Component Analysis with Varimax normalized rotation showed Al, Fe and Cr are originated from crustal source and Zn, Cd, Ni, Pb and Cu are originated from anthropogenic sources.
EF and acidic pH values indicate Tehran is under the influence of extremely anthropogenic activities. Large number of vehicles and industrial activity in the city are undoubtedly responsible for the emission of a wide range of pollution.

Among the different types of antibiotics, tetracycline antibiotics are the second most common group around the world that their entrance into domestic sewage can result in contamination of water sources. The aim of this study was to investigate the efficacy of the nano-sonocatalytic process on removal of tetracycline antibiotics from aqueous solutions. In this study, the effectiveness of ultrasonic irradiation without and with TiO2 nanoparticles and hydrogen peroxide were studied in tetracycline antibiotics removal. For this purpose, a reactor different concentrations of tetracycline was exposed to two irradiation frequencies of 35 and 130 KHz. Concentration of residual antibiotic was measured using HPLC equipped with a C18 reverse phase column and a UV detector. It was found that the efficacy of ultrasonic irradiation alone in removal of this pollutant was negligible and at the best conditions only 20.3% removal was achieved at the frequency of 35 KHz. Addition of TiO2 nanoparticles improved the removal efficiency; the removal rate increased with the increase in TiO2 concentration until 250 mg/L, after which it remained approximately stable. The best removal efficiency was achieved by adding 100 mg/l hydrogen peroxide to US/TiO2 process at pH 4 in which 94.3% removal was achieved after 60 minute. The results of this study showed that the sonocatalytic process using TiO2 nanoparticles and along with adding H2O2 as an oxidant is very effective and can be used for removal of tetracycline antibiotics from aqueous solutions.