قاسم کاکایی

One of the fundamental questions in philosophical anthropology pertains to the quality of the relationship between the soul and the body as two separate substances. This question has also been targeted in both Islamic philosophy and the philosophy of the mind. In Islamic philosophy, through propounding the principle of the corporeal origination and spiritual subsistence of the soul, Mullā Ṣadrā has tried to provide a decisive answer to this question. On the other hand, Edward Jonathan Lowe, one of the distinguished authorities in the field of the philosophy of the mind, has tried to resolve this challenge through negating the absolute immateriality of the soul. Following a descriptive-analytic method and through library research, the present study was carried out to investigate and evaluate the views of these two philosophers in order to find out whether they have been successful in solving this problem. The findings of the study indicate that, although it initially appears that both of them have been able to overcome this dilemma through providing similar responses, some deliberation over their approaches reveals that their answers suffer from certain problems that must be resolved.

The moral theory of Rumi and Khwaja Nasir can be considered as one of the virtue theories in the initial analysis. Maulana introduces moral actions to achieve results that provide happiness in afterlife and sometimes in the form of moral virtues such as honesty and self-sacrifice, etc, he considers the goal to be the truth of human spiritual perfection. For this reason, he can be considered a virtuous person. Khwaja also defines happiness for man as happiness in powers of the soul and considers the perfection of the powers in observing the middle. From his point of view, virtue is in the middle and moderation. He considers virtue to be the cause of happiness. But careful examination of the works of these two scholars of ethics shows; Their final opinion confirms something else. From Khwaja's point of view, human perfection is not limited to following middle, it is a course in longitudinal degrees and a kind of movement of the pronoun in order to achieve actual celibacy and celibacy from matter. this level also has levels, and the last level of the levels of happiness is "true happiness" which is "perdition". In fact, in his mystical books, he went beyond the Aristotelian average and proposed a kind of long-term happiness according to the authorities of individuals. Even though in some verses, Rumi considers the criterion of moral action to be perfection and virtue; But in his final opinion, he says that these are the ones who perform their moral actions, such as self-sacrifice, regardless of their perfection and virtue. Therefore, although in Masnavi of Rumi and moral writings of Khwaja, one can see moral areas such as virtue and ultimatum; But from their point of view, only the last area, which is the "perdition" , is introduced the highest moral

Murtaḍā Muṭahharī, one of the prominent thinkers in the field of Islamic Philosophy, and Immanuel Kant, one of the great thinkers of Western philosophy, have presented some innovative theories in the realm of philosophy. The “theory of fiṭrah” is one of the most significant theories in Muṭahharī’s philosophical system. He maintains that Man possesses three levels of nature, instinct, and fiṭrah (primordial nature) and also divides fiṭrah itself into two parts: “fiṭrah of knowledge” and “fiṭrah of interest”. Most of Muṭahharī’s innovative ideas, particularly when explaining some topics “such as God, eternity of the soul, and ethics, have been presented in his discussions related to fiṭrah of interest.” On the other hand, as a distinguished and influential philosopher, Kant has criticized metaphysical issues, particularly problems in connection to God, immortality of the soul, and freedom, and transferred them to the realm of “practical reason” from theoretical reason. Muṭahharī’s theory of fiṭrah and, particularly, the discussion of fiṭrī interests and the related issues, such as demonstration of God, immortality of the soul, and ethics, are completely comparable to Kant’s theory of practical reason, specifically the discussion of the essential principles of practical reason, including freedom, eternity of the soul, and God. The purpose of this study is to compare Muṭahharī’s theory of fiṭrah and Kant’s theory of practical reason and to explain their common features, that is, the similarity of infinite perfection with supreme good, the similarity of their methods of demonstrating the eternity and God, and the similarity of their views as to status of philosophy of ethics. The author has followed a descriptive-analytic and comparative approach in order to conduct this study based on the data collected from these two thinkers’ works.

In the works of philosophers, the existing division of beings into immaterial and material ones has been done based on different criteria. Peripatetic scholars consider material beings ascribed to prime matter. Although some philosophers, like Sheikh Ishraq, who deny the existence of prime matter, believe in both immaterial and material beings, they maintain that the criterion of this division is not the prime matter but other things such as impotentiality and potentiality, denying and acceptance of sensible indication, and absence and presence. Mulla Sadra has also used these criteria in the division of beings into immaterial and material. In this research, by descriptive-analytical method, we have shown the inefficiency of these criteria, and, relying on Mulla Sadra's views and principles, we have shown equality of existence with the immateriality based on the principles of transcendent wisdom.

Substantial dualism is one of the most important theories about the soul and the body, which became famous with Descartes' statements. By expressing this issue, Descartes distinguishes between the soul and the body, and considers one to belong to the spiritual world and the other to belong to the physical world. Because Descartes sees the soul and the body as two substances from two different worlds, he fails to solve the problem of the connection between them. , So that after a while his view is rejected as unscientific by some thinkers. Following a study of Descartes' point of view, Edward Jonathan Lowe seeks to revive the substantial dualism by making some changes to Descartes. On the one hand, he, like Descartes, distinguishes the soul from the body and believes that the soul is not the same body or a part of the body as the brain and on the other hand, he believes that the soul possesses some physical characteristics such as space and speed. Thus, by attributing some physical properties to the soul, Lowe overcomes the problem of the relationship between the soul and the body, although he faces other challenges in proving his point.

The book "Jame chr(chr('39')39chr('39'))al-Asrar va manba ‘al-anvar " is the most important mystical book of Seyyed Haidar Amoli, a Shiite mystic and commentator of the eighth century AH. In this book, Seyyed Haidar applies and proves the most fundamental subject of Islamic mysticism, which is "monotheism and monotheistic" based on the original Shiite sources, that is revelation, narration and reason and  Ibn Arabichr(chr('39')39chr('39'))s discovery  on the issue of "guardianship" Considers it incomplete and the result of religious prejudice and by believing in the three levels of religion, he considers "canon (religious law), religious path, and Truth" as the only hierarchical truth  and he believes they are a single truth and are not separate and ultimately limit original mysticism to the right religion of Shiism. Therefore, one of the most important motives for writing this book was to explain the "truth of Shiism" and to defend the legitimacy of Shiite beliefs. In designing all mystical issues, he uses revelation and reason and discovery based on the original Shiite thought with the focus on the prophetic and Alavi " guardianship ", so it can be said that the ruling spirit of this book is the principles of Shiite ijtihad.The forthcoming research, in addition to the most important characteristics and principles of Shiite mysticism, emphasizes this valuable book such as "Belief in Existential Monotheism, Belief in the Equality and Objectivity of Twelver Shiites with True Sufism, Reliance of Shiite Mysticism on the Source of Revelation and Narration, Belief in rationality of Mysticism Shiism and the adaptation of taste to reason and…” In area, the principles of mystical epistemology have been extracted, analyzed and explained.

In an epistemic disagreement, if the counterparts insist on their rightfulness and falsification of other’s opinions, the cognitive contradictions often end up with conflict. If one of them ignores his belief and accept other’s beliefs unconditionally, it leads to domination and sovereignty of others. Here, Ibn ‘Arabī proposes a third way. Despite sticking to his belief, he considers other’s beliefs as opportunity for further excellence and knowledge. In Ibn ‘Arabī’s system of thought, every creature is ontologically a manifestation of a name or some names of God. Also, epistemologically, their understanding of God depends on their ability to receive the divine manifestations. Ibn ‘Arabī accepted the idea of inaccessibility to the whole truth by connecting the discrepancy of ideas and beliefs to the discrepancy of talents and manifestations. This idea can be one of his most important bases in addressing epistemic disagreement.

Existence is divided into various divisions by Muslim philosophers. Existence in itself (per se) and existence in something else (Per Accident) are considered a significant categorization on existence. This division on existence is phrased by Mulla Sadra as Rabet existence (Connective being) and independent existence (self-subsistent being). The next philosophers especially Hajj Molla Hadi Sabzavari and Allameh Tabatabaei decided to unite them. Such unification fails to be successful and makes some difficulties like joining quiddity to concepts in addition to it, many of the philosophical foundations that are in some way related to quiddity are rejected. The aim in this paper is to attempt for presenting an accurate analysis of self-subsistent existence and connective being and combine these two divisions in a consistent way. It makes some difficulties such joining quiddity to concepts and many of the philosophical foundations that are in some way related to quiddity are rejected. In this article, we try to make an accurate analysis of self-subsistent existence and connective being and combine these two divisions in a consistent way.

Death is major issues that is common to all human. A comparative study of this issue from the perspective of St, Augustine and Mulla sadra is an effective and beneficial step toward our understanding of this problem Augustine according to Christian teaching especially St Paul’s introduces death based on original sin and other sins and said the main cause of death is sin. He believes that in the creation human must benefits eternal life is didn’t commit sin. But the original sin of Adam and Eve since the conception of the human race was in their death penalty as a just took it for all human. But Mulla sadra does not accept effect of original sin, however he agree with St, Augustine the human intentional sin can kill the soul. In addition Mulla sadra regards to substantial motion theory believes that natural death is one of the existential perfection of mankind stages but those two philosophers despite of all differences, emphasize the common feature of natural death such as necessity, generality and being a favor .also they believed that volitional death means the cultivation of the soul and to eradicate the sensory instincts and disconnect the soul from the body of Salek s (spiritual traveler) will and its effect. They consider death as beginning of new life and call it a way to get to God.

Lifestyle is one of the important issues that has occupied the minds of thinkers in today's world, especially in the fields of psychology and sociology. This phenomenon is of great importance in the scientific communities of the world as well as Iran. On the other hand, despite the attraction of Islamic lifestyle, it has been accused of escaping society and even opposing the life over the course of history. Explaining the concept of "mysticism" and "lifestyle" based on Rumi's mystical attitudes (d. 672 AH) and the views of contemporary psychology, this research analyzes the different approaches of mystics towards the life. The findings show that, the lifestyle from the viewpoint of late psychologists, in particular Alfred Adler (1870 AD), is not just the human exterior behaviors, rather, the lifestyle is a system of attitudes and actions, so that nothing is outside or separate from the lifestyle. This comprehensive approach to the lifestyle is more closely associated with mystical attitudes. In dealing with the lifestyle issues, Rumi also believes that the human action is affected by his spiritual attitude, and in dealing with the phenomena of life, he follows the pattern of "acceptance and development": He accepts the needs of the material life, but he believes that, since man is beyond than this life, he must look for a superior life; that is "the spiritual life." This approach to the life, can be appealing, pleasant and persuasive to contemporary humans.

 According to Sadra, the relationship between possible beings and the Necessary Being is dependency. He believes that all other Muslim philosophers before him, including Jalal al-Din Davani understood this relationship to be relational. However, Davani, who in his works holds that the relation between the cause and the effect is a kind of “attribution”, explains this relation in two different forms, the first of which is known as the theory of Zawq al-Ta'alluh (Inclination to Divinity); from his views in this regard one can mostly conclude the relationality of possible beings. In the second form he uses the concept of emanation instead of causality and the notion of the source of attributions (Um al-Nisab) to more precisely explain the concept of “attribution” and considers it to be synonymous with manifestation and emanation in a way that one can say Davani's view corresponds to that of Sadra concerning personal unity. In this paper, firstly it is shown that the second approach to Davani's view is a more complete and precise one and secondly, it is concluded that two matters caused Sadra to believe that Davani considered possible beings to be relational beings:  Davani’s unsuccessful explanation of his intended meaning and Sadra’s inattention to the second form of the explanation of “attribution”.

There are different opinions about the Primal Matter among slamic philosophers. On the types and numbers of substances have been presented various views. One of the reasons for this disagreement is that some put Primal Matter among substances And others do not this. People like Abu al-Barakat Baghdadi and Sheikh Ishraq and at the present time , People like Motahari and Mesbah consider it to be rejected. although Sadr al-Motaalehin Shirazi explains in detail about Primal Matter and it is famous that he accepts it but by summing up his particular views on Primal Matter such as the non-existence of Primal Matter and inteligible and non-causality for it in relation to Form and abstraction Primal Matter of form and … As well as according to the principles such as the primacy of existence ,existential gradation and of the Division of self-subsistent existence and connective being, It can be seen that in terms of Mulla Sadra Primal Matter is secondary intelligible.

Epistemology is one of the most important issues in philosophy. Since the principle issue of Transcendent Wisdom is the principality of existence, response to this question depends on the principality of existence. According to the principality of existence, existence is real and principal in the external world and quiddity is derivative. According to Mulla Sadra’s opinion the reality of existence does not come in mind, so the conformity of subject to object in his philosophy refers to the issue of quiddity and existence. We can elicit two meanings of principality from Mulla Sadra’s opinion that each of them leads to different conclusions and conformity of subject to object is different from each other in both meanings. According to Kant subject does not correspond to object, because what is in our mind which is known to us, is only the Phenomenon and manifestation of objects and our mind cannot know the reality of objects. In this way, corresponding of subject with object in Kant’s philosophy refers to Noumenon and Phenomenon. To investigate these two approaches, we decided to compare existence in its different meanings with Noumenon and also quiddity in its meanings with Phenomenon. Being in some aspects is similar to psychological meaning of noumenon, but the being is more general than noumenon.

Allameh Tabatabai, in his Principles of the Philosophy and Methodology of Realism, considers the reality as the apprehension of the Divine essence; but he has represented a various conception from reality and the Divine essence (restricted to the attributes or necessities etc.). This paper, seeks to analyze the selected conception of the Divine essence from the viewpoint of Allameh Tabatabai. This conception is the same reality that is beyond any absoluteness and determination; but considering the Divine essence as a conditioned reality, absolute reality versus absolute and conditioned reality, is not compatible with the selected conception of the Divine essence of Allameh Tabatabai. Although, these conception are compatible with each other based on different conception. Finally, by analyzing the quality of formation of absolute reality in mind, the abstract method of Allameh will be subordinated to the negative concept and negation of concept.

Meaningful attitude represents one of the most important approaches to Islamic architecture and art and states that Islamic architecture and art implies some facts that exceed from place and time limits. Islamic architecture and art from this group point of view is of super-historical realities embodied in history. Thinkers viewed the Islamic architecture and art of having mystical identity and dealt it with a meaningful attitude. Titus Burkhardt depening in traditionist movement viewed Islamic architecture and art as symbolic and secret and believed that secret is not an arbitrary sign but represents existence rule and tradition in creature and the existence is based on encoding. Burkhardt considered architecture the most important and superior emamanation appearance and encoding among Islamic arts. From his point of view geometrical decorations in Islamic architecture point to uniform thoughts of God clearly, vacancies in Islamic architecture is the secret of ubiquitous presence of God and finally there is not any secret and signs as light near to divine union. The study aims to know and study encoding in Islamic architecture and art from traditionist movement point of view specially Titus Burkhardt examined by descriptive-analytical method using valid books and articles.

In this paper, we have tried to study the death and its relationship with sin, in the comparative approach, from the perspective of St. Augustine and Mulla Sadra. Scrutiny these two views, Indicates that St Augustine, according to Christianity, especially the teachings of Paul, introduces death as the basis of the original sin. He even introduces sin as the cause of death. He believes that God created man in such a way that, if he did not commit sins He enjoyed eternal life without the intermediary of death. He also following Plato believes that corporeal death is Separation soul of the body and he believes this is not natural death, it is imposed by Adam and Eve's sin. But Mulla Sadra, however, agrees with Augustine in this regard that human voluntary sins can cause death of the soul and eternal death of man, But he don’t accept the effect of the original. Mulla Sadra also accepts the descentsion of man on earth but he believes the reason for this is the expedient that is the same divine caliph is on earth. In addition, Mulla Sadra believes that, Natural death is the stage of human perfection which has already started with Substantial motion.

In the majority of his works, Tabatabaie takes the side of cataphaticism about divine attributes. But the theory is presented in his different works in different ways. There are at list 3 ways in which he has presented the theory including (1) verticality of meaning regardless of instances, (2) verticality of meaning with respect to expression of instances, and (3) ungradedness of meaning with respect to the goal and the common function. In this article, we shall try to explain and analyze the three models, and give examples of each one from his works. Notwithstanding that cataphaticism have advantages and transcends the finitude-oriented natural language and makes use of it with regard to God, it suffers from noteworthy shortcomings.

Some the opponents of the theory of "Unity of Existence" is completely rejecting it, and some have some interpretation of it. Ghias ad-Din Mansour Dashtaki is one of those who interpreted it as the "Unity of intuition". It means that the mystic arrives in a state becoming unaware of all things but God. However, one can find, in his works, cases he defends the unity of existence too. We can conclude that his prevailing theory is the unity of intuition, and his confusion between the unity of existence and unity of intuition is the result of some matters such as his failing to distinguish between different views, being influenced by the dispute occurred between him and Jalal al-Din Dawani and his try to deal with the ignorant Sufis of his time.

In the view of some philosophers, philosophy has been reduced to mental wayfaring and conceptual exchanges. In contrast, based on certain practical aspects, some other philosophers consider philosophy to be the same as ontological wayfaring. In Mulla Sadra’s view, philosophy reflects the process of the perfection of the human soul in an essential and graded sense in the light of ontological wayfaring rather than in a quantitative or qualitative sense. He maintains that the end of philosophy is to become similar to God, and this similarity is realized through attaining all-inclusive knowledge and becoming separate from corporeal things. Assuming the sameness of philosophy and wayfaring results in pluralism in philosophizing, limitless philosophizing, separation of epistemological promotion from ontological promotion, methodological pluralism, and go togetherness of the purification of the soul and philosophy. Based on equating philosophy with wayfaring, Mulla Sadra tries to organize the structure of the Transcendent Philosophy based on the model of the four-fold journeys.

A critical investigation of the relationship between death and sin in the labors of St. Augustine Ghasem kakaie, professor of university of Shiraz Mahbubeh jabbareh naseru, PHD candidate of comparative philosophy University of Qom The question of death is one of the most common and inevitable ones in human life. It has been considered by monotheistic religions, philosophical trends and theological schools as one of the existential and epistemic concerns of mankind among whom one can point to St. Augustine, one of the most sparkling theologians in Christendom. In this article, we delve deeply into the interrelation between death and the concept of sin in the Augustine’s oeuvre. Scrutinizing his works indicates that inspired by some early Christian sources, specifically the Paul’s letters in the New Testament, he is very much more considerate of the mutual relationship between sin and death in comparison with his predecessors. In his various, voluminous treatises Augustine treats original sin as well as daily sins as the main cause of death. He opines that based on the nature of human creation, he would benefit immortality if he did not commit sins. He enumerates three kinds of death, i.e. corporeal death (when soul leaves body), death of soul (when God leaves it) and eternal death (When the soul which has already been left by God leaves the body), contending that the abovementioned kinds of death are brought about due to man’s disobedience. He asserts that the first human couple were punished on the basis of the divine just judgment due to their disobedience. Based on the idea of the presence of mankind in Adam, he extends the punishment to his descendants as well. Accordingly, every single human being suffers from the original sin. We believe that he exaggerates in his emphasis on the idea of the original sin and his outcomes so that he exonerates no one but Jesus Christ and his mother.

Ontology in natural and philosophical sciences that has been considered by Darwin and Mulla Sadra, is the mostinfluential theory of ontological domain which deals with how material organisms change and develop. Both scientists regard the material existents changeable and they maintain that all material species are allowed to be in evolution, but there are some differences between them. Thanks to evolution, Darwin believes that the organisms through genetic mutation and the related changes and by natural and sexual selection can be converted into another species more compatible to environment, and this conversion can also be led to actual changes. But Mulla Sadra, by explaining how material organisms developing, has considered the environmental factors as background for organisms’ changes and evolution and the gradation of existence can complete actualization of the species. Although afterwards the change proceeds and continues regarding substantial motion, but this change is longitudinal and intense, the nature and reality of substantial species which possessing evolutional(intensifying) motion, is maintained and will be reserved at all stages of development. The research method of this paper is descriptive – analytic and we try to evaluate and compare Darwin and Mulla Sadra’s doctrines regarding their own books.