محمدبهزاد امیری

 Savory (Satureja hortensis L.) is an annual aromatic medicinal plantbelonging to the Lamiaceae family. Its essential oil is used widely in medicine, food, health industries, and therapeutic processes. Additionally, the essential oil is an important part of traditional medicine to treat muscle pains, indigestion and diarrhea and infection diseases. Also, the relatively high vitamin C and vitamin A content of savory may contribute to long-term health by boosting the natural state of the human immune system. Biochar is a solid material formed by high-temperature charring of biomass under anaerobic conditions. It has a large specific surface area, high porosity, and abundant nutrients, such as nitrogen, potassium, and calcium. As a result of these properties,  applying biochar as an organic soil amendment has been considered as an option to improve agricultural systems. The great potential of biochar application has also been directly reflected in plant growth and crop productivity. Biochar can potentially remediate salt-affected soils through salt sorption. Specifically, biochar sorption of Na+ in the soil solution can both reduce plant Na uptake and increase the relative uptake of Ca2+ and Mg2+. More broadly, biochar can generally enhance plant growth by improving soil properties, such as cation-exchange capacity (CEC), water retention capacity, and bulk density. Biochar can reduce fertilizer and water use by increasing the soil CEC and water-holding capacity (WHC).Using sulfur (especially in soil with low sulfur content) improves soil properties and increases plant growth and yield. The biochemical oxidation of elemental sulfur produces sulfuric acid (H2SO4), which decreases soil pH and solubilizes CaCO3 in alkaline soils to make soil conditions more favorable for plant growth. Sulfur is a part of an enzyme necessary for nitrogen absorption. Its deficiency can significantly hinder nitrogen metabolism, as sulfur and nitrogen are required to form amino acids essential for protein synthesis. Sulfur is also present in fatty acids and vitamins, playing a key role in crops' quality, taste, and aroma. Nano-fertilization is an agricultural technique that enhances crop growth, improves nutrient efficiency, and reduces fertilizer waste and costs. It promotes better crop development by providing more surface area for various metabolic reactions, thereby increasing the rate of photosynthesis and overall crop productivity while preventing biotic and abiotic stress.

 To evaluate the combined application of ecological inputs, specifically biochar and sulfur nutritional treatments, on the medicinal plant savory (Satureja hortensis L.), a split-plot experiment based on a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications was conducted over the 2020-2021 and 2021-2022 growing seasons at the Research Field of the University of Gonabad, Iran. The data were analyzed using composite analysis. Different biochar levels (5, 10, and 20 t.ha⁻¹, plus a control) and sulfur nutritional treatments (common sulfur, nano-sulfur, and control) were assigned to the main and subplots, respectively.

 The results of this study showed that the highest and lowest seed number per m2 and flowering shoot weight were obtained in treatments of 20 t.ha-1 biochar and spraying of nanosulfur (with 27777 seeds per m2 and 25.67 g flowering shoot, respectively) and non-application of biochar and control (with 8024 seeds per m2 and 6.24 g flowering shoot, respectively). The results of triple interaction effects of different amounts of biochar, nutritional treatments, and cropping year showed that the highest seed yield (10.74 g.m2) and biological yield (46.91 g.m2) were observed in the first cropping year and treatments of simultaneous application of 20 t.ha-1 biochar and spraying of nanosulfur. The interaction effects of biochar and nutritional treatments showed that the highest oil was obtained in the treatment of 10 t.ha-1 biochar and soil application of common sulfur. The total phenol, flavonoid content, and antioxidant activity decreased with the simultaneous application of biochar and sulfur nutritional treatments. The highest levels of these traits were observed when no biochar was applied in combination with the nutritional treatments.

 In general, according to the findings of this research, the simultaneous application of high amounts of biochar (levels of 10 and 20 t.ha-1) and sulfur nutritional treatments, especially spraying of nano-sulfur, led to improved yield and yield components, but the qualitative characteristics of savory were reduced due to the combined use of these ecological inputs.

Water stress is one of the most important factors in reducing the yield of agricultural products worldwide. If the stress is intensive and continuous, plant growth and productivity are severely diminished. Water superabsorbent polymer can absorb and retain extremely large amounts of a liquid relative to its own mass. They have a wide range of applications because of their high water absorbing capacity, biodegradability and low cost.Humic acid is an organic compound that is derived from the decomposition of organic matter and contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. This acid plays a key role in increasing the fertility of the soil and feeding the plant when added to the plant, in helps to increase its growth through its effect to photosynthesis, respiration, increase the plants resistance to harsh environmental conditions and stimulates many of the vital interactions within the plant.Salicylic acid, a naturally occurring plant hormone, acts as an important signaling molecule and enhances tolerance of treated plants against biotic stresses. Salicylic acid also has a vital role in plant growth, ion uptake, and nutrient transport within the plant.Factor analysis is a technique that is used to reduce a large number of variables into fewer numbers of factors. This technique extracts maximum common variance from all variables and puts them into a common score.

In order to evaluate the effects of different irrigation levels and nutritional treatments and determining factors affecting water use efficiency of maize (Zea mays L.), a split plots experiment based on RCBD design with three replications was conducted during 2015-16 growing season, at Research Field of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran. Irrigation levels in two levels (50 and 100% of water requirement) and nutritional treatments in five levels (1- Nitrogen+Superabsorbent, 2- Superabsorbent+Humic acid+Salicylic acid, 3- Humic acid+Salicylic acid+Nitrogen, 4- Humic acid+ Salicylic acid+Nitrogen+Superabsorbent and 5- Control) assigned to main and sub plots, respectively.

The results showed that all of the nutritional treatments affected water use efficiency, but in both conditions of 50 and 100% of water requirement, the highest water use efficiency were obtained in treatment of Humic acid+Salicylic acid+Nitrogen+Superabsorbent. The highest seed yield (17542 kg.ha-1) observed in treatment of nitrogen+superabsorbent+humic acid+Salicylic acid and supply 100% of water requirement and the lowest seed yield (12515 kg.ha-1) obtained in treatment of control and supply 50% of water requirement. Factor analysis results showed that variables analyzed to two factors. First factor included 51% of variables variance, respectively. First factor included variables of seed yield, biological yield, plant height, leaf area index, crop growth rate and soil nitrogen, phosphorous and pH and variables of seed weight per plant, soil EC and water use efficiency were in second factor. In first factor, important variables such as soil nitrogen, phosphorous were included, so this factor describe soil conditions and second factor which had the highest impact on water use efficiency was called as water use efficiency factor. In a research reported that application of water superabsorbent increased seed yield of maize compared to control. In another research, the highest seed yield of maize obtained in treatment of simultaneous application of 120 kg.ha-1 water superabsorbent and 8 kg.ha-1 humic acid. Application of salicylic acid and humic acid enhanced seed yield of maize 24.5 and 24.2% compared to control, respectively.

In general, based on results of this research, it seems simultaneous application of nitrogen and ecological inputs can improve yield, growth characteristics and water use efficiency. Factor analysis and high correlation among variables in same group showed that with change of variables that are in same group of water use efficiency, can increased water use efficiency and decreased damages of drought stress.

Plants are exposed to several environmental stresses, all affecting plant growth, and development, which hampers crop plants' productivity. The mungbean (Vigna radiata L.) is a plant species from the legume family. This plant is an enriched source of protein, fiber, antioxidants, and phytonutrients. It plays an important role in the human diet and improves soil fertility by fixing atmospheric nitrogen. The average yield of mungbean is quite low. One way to improve crop yield and production is the management of fertilizers such as spent mushroom compost that greatly affect mungbean growth, development, and yield. Spent mushroom compost (SMC) is the residual compost waste generated by the mushroom production industry. It is readily available, and its formulation generally consists of wheat straw, dried blood, horse manure, and ground chalk composted together. This research was carried out to study the effects of different levels of spent mushroom compost on mungbean's quantitative yield and water use efficiency under drought stress. 

This research was conducted in 2016-17 as a split plot based on a completely randomized block design with three replications at the Research Farm of the University of Gonabad. Main factor levels concluded of full irrigation (300 m3 in each irrigation) and irrigation disruption at the pod formation stage, and subfactor consisted of 0 (control), 20, 40, 60, and 80 t.ha-1 spent mushroom compost. 

The results showed that under drought stress, the highest seed yield (1660 kg.ha-1) obtained in the treatment of 60 t.ha-1 spent mushroom compost and 40 t.ha-1 spent mushroom compost decreased the effects of drought stress. In full irrigation, the highest biological yield observed in treatments of 80 (7377 kg.ha-1) and 60 t.ha-1 (6132 kg.ha-1) spent mushroom compost and drought stress and no application of fertilizer decreased biological yield (46%). In drought stress conditions, application of 40, 60, and 80 t.ha-1 spent mushroom compost increased water use efficiency compared to control, and the highest water use efficiency was observed in the treatment of 60 t.ha-1 spent mushroom compost. Application of 80 t.ha-1 spent mushroom compost increased the lateral branch number by 44% compared to control. The highest and the lowest pod number per plant were obtained in treatments of 80 to.ha-1 spent mushroom compost (27 pods per plant) and control (17.3 pods per plant), respectively. Less irrigation increased water use efficiency, so each level of SMC in full irrigation conditions did not significantly differ from similar levels under drought stress. The main consequences of drought in crop plants are reduced cell division and expansion rate, leaf size, stem elongation and root proliferation, disturbed stomatal oscillations, plant water and nutrient relations with diminished crop productivity, and water use efficiency. Spent mushroom compost is an excellent source of humus. SMC does not contain any pests or weed seeds because of the high temperatures associated with the composting and pasteurization processes. SMC also contains very low levels of pesticides and heavy metals. The negative effects of drought stress on plants of the legume family have been proven in other studies. Research on wheat reported that spent mushroom compost increased seed number per spike. 

The results showed that drought stress reduced most of the studied traits. Application of 20 t.ha-1 spent mushroom compost did not significantly affect most studied traits. The highest effect on plant height, lateral branch number, and pod number per plant were observed in the treatment of 80 t.ha-1 spent mushroom compost. In general, according to the results of this research, applying optimum amounts of spent mushroom compost as an eco-friendly input in drought stress can improve growth characteristics and yield.

In order to evaluate the effect of humic and salicylic acids spraying on some morphological characteristics, yield and yield components of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.), a split split plots experiment based on RCBD design with three replications was conducted in 2015-2016 growing seasons, in University of Gonabad, Iran. The main plots, sup plots and sub sub plots included different levels of irrigation in three levels (full irrigation, cuting irrigation at flowering stage and grain filling in the end of growth season stages), humic acid in two levels (0 and 6 liter.ha-1) and salicylic acid in two levels (0 and 1 mMol), respectively. The results showed that cutting irrigation at flowering and grain filling stages decreased seed yield 30% and 51% compared to control, respectively; while it did not effect on biological performance and harvest index. Simultaneous application of humic and salicylic acids improved most of the studied traits, so that the highest plant height (207.16 cm), tiller number per plant (1.88), seed number per panicle (1854), 1000 seeds weight (40.20 g) and seed yield (2838.67 kg.ha-1) in application of humic and salicylic acids treatment in the full irrigation conditions were obtained. Cross-sectional stress treatment in the grain filling stage and non-application of humic and salicylic acids had the highest rate of harvest index (29.47%). The highest biological yield (15802.7 kg.ha-1) was obtained under full irrigation and humic and salicylic acids application conditions. Also, the most positive and significant correlation was observed between seed number per panicle and the plant height (r= 0.97**) . According to the results of this research, it is recommended touse 6 liter.ha-1 humic acid and 1 mmol salicylic acid spraying to improve growth and yield of sorghum plant in drought stress conditions.

An experiment based on CRD design with three replications was conducted in 2014 year, in Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran. The experimental treatments included 7 types of eco-friendly inputs: Humic acid, Fulvic acid, Nitroxin (contains Azotobacter spp. And Azospirillum spp. Bacterias), Biophosphorous (contains Bacillus sp. And Pseudomonas sp. bacterias), Biosulfur (contains Thiobacillus spp. Bacteria), Glomus mosseae, Glomus intraradices, and control. The results showed that organic acids of humic and fulvic increased germination percentage 25 and 20% and germination rate 58 and 33% compared to control, respectively. Germination percentage was 20, 25, and 24% more in biofertilizers of nitroxin, biophosphorous and biosulfur compared to control, respectively and germination rate under application of this fertilizers added 59, 24, and 50% compared to control, respectively. Humic acid, fulvic acid, nitroxin, biophosphorous, biosulfur, Glomus mosseae and Glomus intraradices reduced mean germination time 33, 35, 38, 19, 36, 36, and 16% compared to control, respectively. The highest radicle and plumule length obtained in treatment of humic acid and the highest radicle to plumule length observed in treatment of biosulfur. Fulvic acid increased radicle and plumule dry weight 51 and 38% compared to control, respectively. The highest and the lowest radicle to plumule dry weight obtained in treatments of Glomus intraradices (0.199) and control (0.124), respectively.

In recent years, healthy and sustainable production of agricultural products, especially medicinal plants, has received more attention. This research was done in order to evaluate the effect of humic acid spraying and different levels of spend mushroom compost (SMC) on growth and yield of castor bean (Ricinus communis L.).

In this research a split plots experiment based on RCBD design with three replications was conducted in 2015-2016 growing seasons, in University of Gonabad, Iran. The main plots included Humic acid (application and non-application) and the sub plots contained different levels of spend mushroom compost (0, 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100 t.ha-1).

The results showed that effect of humic acid spraying, different levels of SMC and their interaction effects was significant on the most of studied traits. Effect of all different levels of SMC on seed yield in conditions of humic acid spraying was exacerbated, so that seed yield in simultaneous application of humic acid and 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100 t.ha-1 levels of SMC, 40, 46, 37, 19 and 17% was more than sole application of this fertilizer, respectively. The highest and lowest height of lowest and highest panicle from ground level, obtained in treatment of simultaneous application of humic acid and 80t.ha-1 SMC and treatment of non application of humic acid and non application of SMC, respectively.

According to the results of this research, it seems application of ecological inputs such as humic acid and optimum amounts of SMC while improve growth and yield of castor medicinal plant, as an ecofriendly approach for development of sustainable agriculture and ecosystem health can be considered.

In order to evaluate effect of water superabsorbent application on yield and some physiological characteristics and water productivity of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) and maize (Zea mays L.) in water stress conditions, a split plots experiment based on RCBD design with three replications was conducted during 2015-2016 growing season, in Research Farm of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran. Irrigation levels (50 and 100 percent of water requirement) and application (80 kg.ha-1) and non-application of water superabsorbent assigned to main and sub plots, respectively. The results showed that in bean, the highest seed yield (2191kg.ha-1), dry matter yield (4588 kg.ha-1), weight seed per plant (10.89 g), height plant (97 cm), LAI (9.39), CGR (8.35 g.m-2.day-1), soil nitrogen (0.163%), phosphorous (0.0082%) and pH (9.68) obtained in treatment of 100 percent of water requirement and application of water superabsorbent. In sesame, application of water superabsorbent in drought stress conditions (50 percent of water requirement) increased seed weight per plant (22.17 g), plant height (91 cm), LAI (9.70), CGR (6.58 g.m-2.day-1) and soil nitrogen (0.101%), phosphorous (0.0063%) and pH (9.32) by 24, 30, 32, 59, 20, 44 and 17 percent compared to control, respectively. In maize, the highest seed yield (22522 kg.ha-1), dry matter yield (39502 kg.ha-1), seed weight per plant (332 g), plant height (194 cm), LAI (8.10), CGR (9.43 g.m-2.day-1) and soil nitrogen (0.095%) and pH (9.70) observed in treatment of 100 percent of water requirement and application of water superabsorbent.

Today, intercropping as a key strategy of sustainable agriculture, is appreciated by both researchers and farmers in increasing efficiency of environmental resourceing uses, reduce damages due to environmental stresses, and improve the farm income. To this end, a split plot experiment based on a randomized complete blocks design with three replications was conducted at the Research Farm of Gonabad University.Main factor, comprised of  25% safflower + 75% chickpea, 50% safflower + 50% chickpea, 75% safflower + 25% chickpea, and 100% safflower + 100% chickpea intercropping patterns, and sole cropping of the two plants. Subfactors consisted of control (without foliar spray) and foliar spraying of 3 g.lit-1 Fe and Zn. The research results showed that the highest values of branches number (10.5) and head number per plant (22.5) of safflower were achieved from 25% safflower + 75% chickpea and 50% safflower + 50% chickpea intercropping, respectively and the highest seed yield (2070 kg.ha-1) from sole cropping. The branch and head number per plant, 1000-seed weight, and seed yield of safflower were increased significantly due to micronutrient foliar application as compared with control. The plant height (26.4 cm) and seed yield (1739 kg.ha-1) of chickpea showed the highest value in sole cropping while the highest values of pod number per plant (31.9) and seed number per plant (22.2) were obtained from 25% safflower + 75% chickpea intercropping. Micronutrients foliar application improved plant height, pod number per plant, pod length, and seed number per plant of chickpea. The land equivalent ratio values ranged from 1.12 to 1.52. The changes in water use efficiency indices were also higher in all intercropping patterns compared with sole cropping, and the highest value (1.31) was achieved from 75% safflower + 25% chickpea intercropping treatment. The aggressivity index indicated the dominance of safflower over chickpea. All of the intercropping treatments, except for 100% safflower + 100% chickpea pattern, showed real yield increase. The highest value of intercropping advantage (0.51) was obtained from 25% safflower + 75% chickpea treatment while the monetary advantage index (26454751) and the relative total value (1.44) were higher in 100% safflower + 100% chickpea intercropping as compared to the other cropping patterns.

Today, more than a third of the worlds land is located in arid and semi-arid areas that are subject to water constrains. Drought stress causes different physiological changes in the plant, such as increasing shading temperature, increasing concentration of proline amino acid, decreasing leaf relative humidity, increasing soluble sugars concentration, increasing stomatal resistance and increasing concentration of antioxidant compounds of plant. Considering the destructive effects of drought stress, in recent years, many efforts have been made to increase water use efficiency. The use of superabsorbents and spraying of humic acid and salicylic acid are considered as essential solutions for saving and optimizing water use. Regarding insufficient water availability in the country and the importance of using ecofriendly inputs in increasing water productivity and conducting few studies on the use of statistical techniques to identify the factors affecting water use efficiency, this research in order to investigate the effect of water superabsorbent, humic acid and salicylic acid on water use efficiency and some morphological characteristics and yield and tolerance indicators of bean (Phaseolous vulgaris L.) under drought stress was done.

In order to determine factors affecting water use efficiencis of common bean (Derakhshan cultivar) affected by different inputs in conditions of drought stress, a split plot experiment based on RCBD design with three replications was used during 2015-16 growing season, at Research Farm of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran. Irrigation levels (50 and 100% of water requirement) and nutritional treatments (75 kg.ha-1 Nitrogen+80 kg.ha-1 Superabsorbent, 80 kg.ha-1 Superabsorbent+6 kg.ha-1 Humic acid+1 Mm Salicylic acid, 6 kg.ha-1 Humic acid+1 Mm Salicylic acid+75 kg.ha-1 Nitrogen, 6 kg.ha-1 Humic acid+1 Mm Salicylic acid+75 kg.ha-1 Nitrogen+80 kg.ha-1 Superabsorbent and Control) assigned to the main and sub plots, respectively. In this research, traits shuch as seed yield, dry matter yield, harvest index, weight seed per plant, height plant, LAI, CGR, soil nitrogen, phosphorous, EC and pH was estimated.

The result showed that all of the nutritional treatments had significantly effects on water use efficiency, but in both conditions of 50 and 100% of water requirement, the highest water use efficiency were obtained in Humic acid+Salicylic acid+Nitrogen+Superabsorbent, so that this treatment increased water use efficiency 63 and 55% compared to control in 50 and 100% of water requirement, respectively. All of the nutritional treatments decreased damages caused by drought stress, but in this conditions (50% of water requirement), the highest LAI (7.24), CGR (6.47 g.m-2.day-1), soil nitrogen (0.32%) and phosphorous (0.0183%) observed in treatment of nitrogen+superabsorbent+humic acid+salicylic acid. Application of nitrogen+superabsorbent, superabsorbent+humic acid+salicylic acid, nitrogen+humic acid+salicylic acid and nitrogen+superabsorbent+humic acid+salicylic acid increased mean productivity (MP) 19, 54 and 47 and 59%, geometric mean productivity (GMP) 18, 55 and 48 and 59% and harmonic mean (HM) 17, 55 and 48 and 60% compared to control, respectively. Effect of nutritional treatments on stress susceptibility (SSI) and stress tolerance index (STI) was significant and the lowest SSI (0.59) and the highest STI (1.51) obtained in treatment of nitrogen+superabsorbent+humic acid+salicylic acid.

In general, the results showed that although all nutritional treatments were effective in reducing drought stress damages, but the highest seed yield, dry matter yield, harvest index, weight seed per plant, leaf area index, crop growth rate, soil nitrogen and water use efficiency observed in treatment of nitrogen+superabsorbent+humic acid+salicylic acid. MP, GMP and HM in all nutritional treatments was more than control, significantly. Application of superabsorbent+humic acid and salicylic acid, nitrogen+humic acid+salicylic acid, nitrogen+superabsorbent+humic acid+salicylic acid decrease SSI compared to control and the highest STI obtained in treatment of nitrogen+superabsorbent+humic acid+salicylic acid.

Due to the importance of Iranian Ox-Tongue (Echium amoenum) as one of the most important pharmaceutical products used in many pharmaceutical, cosmetic and health industries, this study was done for simultaneous evaluation the effect of planting date and method and different biological and chemical fertilizers on some phytochemical characteristics of Iranian Ox-Tongue in Mashhad conditions.  

A split split plots experiment based on RCBD design with three replications was conducted in 2011-2013 growing seasons, in Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran. Two different planting dates (10 March 2011 and 4 April 2011), three different types of biofertilizers and chemical fertilizers, as mycorrhiza (Glomus mosseae), biosulfur, chemical fertilizer and control and two different types of planting methods (direct seeding and transplanting) assigned to main plots, sub plots and sub-sub plots, respectively.  

The results showed that the highest dry flower yield obtained in conditions of mycorrhiza application in March planting date and direct seeding. Application of mycorrhiza, biosulfur and chemical fertilizer in conditions of transplanting and March planting date increased seed yield 45, 42 and 35%, respectively. In April planting date antioxidant activity in direct seeding was more than transplanting. Application of mycorrhiza and biosulfur increased antioxidant activity 18 and 35% in direct seeding and 20 and 18% in transplanting compared to control, respectively. Mycorrhiza in April planting date increased total anthocyanin 28 and 27% in direct seeding and transplanting compared to control, respectively.  

In general, according to the results of this research, the planting method of direct seeding in March and application of ecological inputs of mycorrhiza and biosulfur is recommended to improve the yield and qualitative characteristics of Iranian Ox-Tongue.

In order to evaluate effect of deficit irrigation and application of water superabsorbent and determining principal components in water use efficiency of common bean, sesame and maize a split plots experiment based on RCBD design with three replications was conducted during 2015-2016 growing season, in Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran. Irrigation levels (50 and 100% of water requirement) and application and non-application of water superabsorbent assigned to main and sub plots, respectively. Principal components analysis for three plant species resulted in two principle components with the most considerable variances. The first component explained 73, 60 and 80% of variables variance in bean, sesame and corn, respectively. In bean, variables of seed yield, biological yield, seed weight, plant height, crop growth rate and soil nitrogen, phosphorous content and pH were assigned to the first component and leaf area index, EC and water use efficiency were assigned to the second component. In sesame, variables of seed yield, biological yield, seed weight, plant height, crop growth rate and soil phosphorous and pH had the highest load on the first component and variables of leaf area index, soil nitrogen content, EC and water use efficiency had the highest load on the second component. In corn, variables of seed yield, biological yield, seed weight, plant height, leaf area index, crop growth rate and soil nitrogen and pH were in the first component and variables of soil phosphorous and EC and water use efficiency in the second component had the highest load.

Insufficient access to water in arid and semi-arid areas has considered water use efficiency as one of the main pillars of sustainable agriculture in these areas. Therefore, in recent years, many efforts have been done to increase water use efficiency, in this regard, the use of superabsorbents and spraying of ecological inputs such as humic acid and salicylic acid are considered as fundamental solutions for saving and optimizing water usage, therefore, this research was conducted with the aim of using factor analysis to determine the affecting factors on water use efficiency of sesame in the conditions of simultaneous application of nitrogen and ecofriendly inputs.

In order to evaluate the effects of different irrigation levels and nutritional treatments and determining factors affecting water use efficiencis of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) and maize (Zea mays L.) a split plots experiment based on RCBD design with three replications was conducted during 2015-16 growing season, at Research Farm of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran. Irrigation levels (50 and 100% of water requirement) and nutritional treatments (1- 75 kg.ha-1 Nitrogen+80 kg.ha-1 Superabsorbent, 2- 80 kg.ha-1 Superabsorbent+6 kg.ha-1 Humic acid+1 Mm Salicylic acid, 3- 6 kg.ha-1 Humic acid+1 Mm Salicylic acid+75 kg.ha-1 Nitrogen, 4- 6 kg.ha-1 Humic acid+1 Mm Salicylic acid+75 kg.ha-1 Nitrogen+80 kg.ha-1 Superabsorbent and 5- Control) assigned to main and sub plots, respectively.

The results showed that the highest seed yield (1672 kg.ha-1) obtained in 100% of water requirement and application of nitrogen+superabsorbent+humic acid+salicylic acid. The role of humic acid and salicylic acid in improving most of the studied traits was significant, so that seed yield, leaf area index, crop growth rate and water use efficiency were 22, 31, 30 and 21% more than treatments without the two inputs, respectively. Factor analysis results showed that variables analyzed to two factors. First factor 59 of variables variance, respectively. First factor included variables of seed yield, seed weight per ,plant, crop growth rate, soil nitrogen and phosphorous and water use efficiency and variables of dry matter yield, plant height, leaf erea index and soil pH were assigned in second factor.

In general, the results of this research showed that treatments of nitrogen+superabsorbent, superabsorbent+humic acid+salicylic acid, nitrogen+humic acid+salicylic acid and nitrogen+superabsorbent+humic acid+salicylic acid increased water use efficiency 15, 27, 32 and 40% compared to control, respectively. According to the results of factor analysis and variables belonging to each factor, it seems that the first factor is the index of yield and the second factor reflects the inherent characteristics of the spatial arrangement of the plant (high load of plant height and leaf area index on this factor). In general, it seems simultaneous application of nitrogen and ecological inputs can improve yield, growth characteristics and water use efficiency. Factor analysis and high correlation between variables in same group showed that with change of variables that are in same group of water use efficiency, can increased water use efficiency and decreased damages of drought stress.

Maintenance of soil fertility as a permanent bed for continuous production of agricultural products is one of the most important issues affecting the sustainability of food production. In order to achieve healthy food production, application of ecological inputs such as organic fertilizers are inevitable. Organic fertilizers are fertilizer compounds that contain one or more kinds of organic matter. They can improve the soil’s ability to hold water and nutrients. They create a beneficial environment for earthworms and microbial organisms that break the soil down into rich, fine humus. Compost is organic matter that has been decomposed and recycled as a fertilizer and soil amendment. Compost can greatly enhance the physical structure of soil. The addition of compost may provide greater drought resistance and more efficient water utilization. Vermicompost is the final product of composting organic material using different types of worms, such as red wigglers or earthworms, to create a homogenized blend of decomposed vegetable and food waste, bedding materials and manure. Vermicompost helps store nutrients and keeps them safe from leeching and irrigation, functioning to balance hormones within plant physiology, and adding beneficial biology to soil. Vermicompost improves soil aeration, enriches soil with micro-organisms (adding enzymes such as phosphatase and cellulose), attracts deep-burrowing earthworms already present in the soil and improves water holding capacity, enhances germination, plant growth and crop yield, improves root growth and structure. Cow manure is an excellent fertilizer containing nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and other nutrients. It also adds organic matter to the soil which may improve soil structure, aeration, soil moisture-holding capacity, and water infiltration. Plant density is the number of individuals of a given plants that occurs within a given sample unit or study area. Planting density can impact the overall health of plants. Plantings that are too sparse (the density is too low) may be more susceptible to weeds, while planting that are too dense might force plants to compete over scarce nutrients and water and cause stunted growth. Despite of many researches on the effect of organic fertilizers and plant density on different crops, information on the effects of these factors for many medicinal plants is scarce, therefore, in this study effect of organic fertilizers and plant density on morphological characteristics and yield of Echium amoenum in a low input cropping system was studied.

In order to evaluate the effect of different fertilizers on quantitative characteristics of Echium amoenum at different plant densities, a factorial experiment based on RCBD design with three replications was conducted in 2011-2013 growing seasons, in Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran. Experimental factors included three plant densities (10, 5 and 3 plant per m2) and five different types of organic and chemical fertilizers (municipal waste compost, vermicompost, cow manure, chemical (urea) fertilizer and control).

The results showed that with reduction of plant density, effect of organic fertilizers on increasing the flower yield was exacerbated and at the lowest density, municipal waste compost, vermicompost and cow manures increased flower yield 112, 79 and 223% compared to control, respectively. In all studied densities, length of lateral branches in conditions of organic fertilizers application was more than control. Municipal waste compost, vermicompost, cow manure and chemical fertilizer increased total phenol 106, 54, 66 and 173% compared to control, respectively. In plant mean density (5 plant per m2), application of municipal waste compost, vermicompost and cow manure increased total anthocyanin 83, 74 and 57% compared to control, respectively. In general, result of this study showed that application of organic and chemical fertilizers at optimal plant densities, can improve growth characteristics and quantitative and qualitative yield of Echium amoenum.Organic fertilizers are the most significant resources for development of agricultural soil quality and increase in the yield of different medicinal plants. It has been reported that this ecological inputs provide favorable conditions for plant growth and development through improvement of physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil, therefore, it can be concluded that improvement of the most studied traits in the present study were due to use of organic fertilizers. Fallahi et al., (20) have reported the positive effects of organic fertilizers on the improvement of quantitative and qualitative characteristics in chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.). It seems that plants compete with each other over scarce nutrients and water in high plant density and cause stunted growth. Some other studies have reported that suitable plant density can increase the growth and yield of some medicinal plants such as coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.), Ajwain (Carum copticum L.), lemon balm (Melissa officinalis L.) and anise (Pimpinella anisum L.).

In general, results of this study showed that application of organic and chemical fertilizers at optimal plant densities, while improving growth and yield characteristics of Echium amoenum flower can be ensured health of production of this important medicinal plant.

Cereals are the most important crops all around the world and among them, wheat has the first rank in terms of production and the cultivation area. This plant is one of the main agricultural products in Iran and provides 45% of calories and 70% of the protein consumed by the Iranian people. Irrigation and soil nutrient availability are considered as main factors affecting the wheat yield. Nowadays, intensive application of these inputs in the conventional agricultural systems is considered to achieve maximum yield, whereas surplus use of them does not only have any significant positive influence on the yield but also has been led to environmental problems for example by leaching the nitrogen losses to underground water and imposes extra costs to the agricultural ecosystems. Therefore, the present study was conducted to optimize the application amount of nitrogen fertilizer and irrigation in wheat by using central composite design technique.

In order to determine the optimal application rates of nitrogen and water in wheat cultivation, a field experiment was conducted based on central composite design in the research field of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad during the 2011 growing season. The treatments were designed based on low and high levels of nitrogen (0 and 400 kg urea.ha-1) and irrigation (2500 and 5000 m3). Central point in each treatment repeated five times and the number of treatments were calculated based on 2k + 2k + r, in which k is the number of evaluating factors (nitrogen and irrigation) and r is the replication number of the central point. Therefore, 13 combination treatments were designed. Several features including seed yield, biological yield, nitrogen losses, nitrogen use efficiency and water use efficiency were measured as dependent variables and response surface of these variables under each combination treatment was calculated by regression model. Finally, the optimum values of water and nitrogen consumption were determined according to three scenarios including economic, environmental and economic-environmental scenarios.

The results indicated a positive effect of increasing nitrogen fertilization and irrigation on seed yield, biological yield and water use efficiency. Whereas, increasing irrigation level led to decreasing nitrogen use efficiency and increasing nitrogen losses. Finally, the optimum levels of nitrogen and irrigation were estimated based on three scenarios including economic, environmental and economic- environmental. In economic scenario, the optimum levels of fertilizer and irrigation were estimated 274 kg urea.ha-1 and 3964 m3.ha-1, respectively to obtain 4045 kg.ha-1 seed yield and 9908 kg.ha-1 biological yield. In environmental scenario, the optimum levels of the treatments to obtain the minimum nitrogen losses amounts were 64.65 kg urea.ha-1 and 2651 m3.ha-1, respectively. In economic-ecological scenario, both seed yield and nitrogen losses were considered, so the estimated input rates were 153 kg urea.ha-1 and 3030 m3.ha-1 irrigation. Simultaneous consideration of the economic aspects and environmental issues to the production in economic-ecological scenario shows the excellence of this scenario than other the two scenarios. 

In order to achieve sustainable production of crops, one of the basic principles is to improve resource efficiency and prevent agricultural input losses. Based on our results, it seems that the optimization values of nitrogen fertilization and irrigation calculated in the economic-environmental scenario which simultaneously considered both economic and environmental aspects of wheat production can be suggested as the most appropriate levels of these two factors according to the study conditions.

In order to evaluation the response of saffron to different manure, biological and chemical fertilizers, an ‎experiment was carried out as split-plot based on randomized complete blocks design with three replications in ‎Research Farm of Gonabad Agriculture Jihad during 2015-2016 and 2016-2017 growing seasons. Main factor ‎was 60 t/ha manure, and no manure application, and sub factor concluded of control (no fertilizer use), nitroxin ‎‎(5 L/ha), biophosphorus (3 L/ha), biosulphur (5 kg/ha), humic acid (10 kg/ha), and chemical fertilizer (150, 100, ‎and 100 kg/ha urea, triple superphosphate, and potassium sulfate). Experiment results indicated that interaction ‎effect of manure and biological and chemical fertilizers on fresh flower yield, fresh and dry stigma yield was ‎significant. The highest fresh flower yield (181 kg/ha) achieved by biophosphorus along with application of 60 ‎t/ha manure. Fresh stigma yield in chemical fertilizer under manure application treatment showed the highest ‎increase (mean yield of 10405 g/ha). While, dry stigma yield due to biophosphorus application obtained the ‎highest value (5351 g/ha). The effect of manure on corm traits was significant. Corm number per unit area and ‎corm yield showed 19% increase in second year due to manure application than control. Among biological and ‎chemical fertilizer treatments, the highest value of corm number (440 corm/m2) and corm yield (4401 kg/m2) ‎was obtained due to biophosphorus application. Based on obtained results, combined application of ‎recommend manure with biological fertilizers especially biophosphorus under climatic and edaphic conditions ‎similar to this experiment area is recommended. ‎

In order to study the response of saffron medicinal plant to planting density and different levels of manure, a two year experiment was conducted in split-plot as complete block design with three replications in 2015-16 and 2016-2017 in Gonabad area. Main factor consisted of 5, 10, and 15 cm plant spacing on row and sub factor was control (no manure application), and application of 0, 20, 40, and 60 t/ha cow manure. Experiment results showed that maximum value of fresh flower yield in first year (127.4 kg/ha) achieved in 60 t/ha and in second year (72.3 kg/ha) obtained from 40 t/ha manure application under 5 cm plant spacing in row. The highest fresh stigma yield in both years (10.300 and 5.383 kg/ha, respectively) was obtained due to high planting density (5 cm plant spacing in row) and 40 t/ha manure application. Also, dry stigma yield under this treatment with 2.300 and 1.770 kg/ha, respectively had more increase in both years than other treatments. The highest daughter corm number in both years (614 and 591 corm/m2, respectively) obtained from highest corm planting density. In first year, 40 t/ha manure treatment had the highest value (592 corm/m2) and in second year, 60 t/ha manure application showed the highest value (572 corm/m2). In first year, the highest corm yield with 22724 kg/ha achieved from 5 cm plant spacing in row and 40 t/ha manure. But, in second year the highest mean value (12429 kg/ha) obtained from the same planting density and use of 60 t/ha manure. Therefore, to achieve suitable economic yield in saffron cultivation, application of 40 t/ha cow manure in 20×5 cm planting density under climatic and edaphic conditions similar to this experiment location is suggested.

In recent years, the effect of ecological inputs on soil properties and plant growth characteristics has received renewed attention. Although the utilization of mineral fertilizers could be viewed as the best solution in terms of plant productivity, this approach is often inefficient in the long-term in tropical ecosystems due to the limited ability of low-activity clay soils to retain nutrients. Biofertilizer is a substance which contains living microorganisms which, as applied to seed, plant surfaces, or soil, colonizes the rhizosphere or the interior of the plant and promotes growth by increasing the supply or availability of primary nutrients to the host plant. Biofertilizers add nutrients through the natural processes of nitrogen fixation, solubilizing phosphorous and stimulating plant growth through the synthesis of growth-promoting substances. Biofertilizers can be expected to reduce the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Humic substances are a group of heterogeneous molecules that are bonded together by weak forces; therefore, they have a high chemical stability. This material included of 65 to 80 percent of total soil organic matter. Humic acid influences soil fertility through its effect on the water-holding capacity of the soil. Humic acids make important contributions to soil stability and soil fertility leading to exceptional plant growth and micronutrient uptake. Mycorrhiza arbuscular fungi are other coexist microorganisms that improves soil fertility, nutrients cycling and agroecosystem health. Mycorrhizal fungi are the most abundant organisms in agricultural soils. Many researchers have pointed to the positive roles of mycorrhizal fungi on plants growth characteristics. Echium amoenum is a wild perennial herb and known in Iran as Ox-Tongue. It is one of the important medicinal plants in Iranian traditional medicine. Petals of Iranian Ox-Tongue have been advocated for a variety of effects such as demulcent, anti-inflammatory and analgesic, especially for common cold, anxiolytic, sedative and other psychiatric symptoms including obsession in folk medicine of Iran. Despite of many researches on the effect of organic acids and biofertilizers on different crops, information on the effects of these factors for many medicinal plants is scarce, therefore, in this study effect of eco-friendly inputs in cultivation of Echium amoenum in conditions of Mashhad was studied. In order to evaluate organic acids, plant growth rhizobacteria and different species of mycorrhiza on yield and yield components of Iranian Ox-Tongue (Echium amoenum), a split plots experiment in time based on RCBD design with three replications was conducted in 2011-2014 growing seasons, in Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran. Seven different types of soil amendments and biofertilizers concluded humic acid, fulvic acid, Nitroxin® (containing Azotobacter spp. And Azospirillum spp.), Biophosphorous® (containing Bacillus sp. and Pseudomonas sp.), Biosulfur® (containing Thiobacillus spp.), Mycorrhiza (Glomus mosseae), Mycorrhiza (Glomus intraradices), and no fertilizer as control and agronomic years (2 and 3 agronomic years) assigned to main and sub plots, respectively. The results showed that the highest dry flower yield obtained in humic acid treatment. Humic acid and fulvic acid increased seed weight per plant 38 and 25% and seed number per plant 19 and 17% compared to control, respectively. Fulvic acid, nitroxin, biophosphorous, biosulfur, mycorrhiza (Glomus mosseae) and mycorrhiza (Glomus intraradices) increased dry flower yield 27, 20, 4, 26, 30 and 28% compared to control, respectively. The highest flower and seed harvest index obtained in mycorrhiza (Glomus intraradices) and humic acid treatments, respectively. It seems that different species of mycorrhiza improved morphological characteristics and yield of Echium amoenum due to provide better conditions to absorption and transportation of nutrient to the plant. It has been reported that organic acids provided favorable conditions for plant growth and development through improvement of physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil, therefore, it can be concluded that improvement of most of studied traits in the present study were due to use of organic acids. In general, the findings of this research showed that application of ecological inputs, while increasing yield and yield components of Iranian Ox-Tongue, can reduce dependence on chemical inputs and their environmental risks and can be used to develop sustainable agriculture and protect the health of the environment.

In order to evaluation of germinaton characteristics and seedling growth of Iranian Ox-Tongue (Echium amoenum) seeds resulting from the rootstock in conditions of application of biological and chemical fertilizers in different planting dates and methods, a split split plot experiment based on CRD design with three replications was conducted in 2014 year, in Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran. The experimental treatments included seeds resulting from treated Iraninan Ox-Tongue with different agronomic factors in farm such as 2 planting dates (10 February and 3 April 2012), 2 planting methods (seed planting and transplanting) and 3 different types of biological and chemical fertilizers (mycorrhiza (Glomus moseae), biosulfur (included Thiobacillus spp.), chemical fertilizer and control). The results showed that mycorrhiza and biosulfur increased germination percentage 18 and 17% and improved germination rate 32 and 33% compared to control, respectively. Mean germination time in conditions of seed planting was less than transplanting conditions. Mycorrhiza application in conditions of seed planting increased radicle length to plumule length 44% compared to control. Effect of planting date was significant on radicle and plumule dry weight, so that the highest radicle (0.0016 g) and plumule (0.0075 g) weight obtained in planting date of 10 February 2012.

In order to evaluate different irrigation amounts and salicylic acid spraying and determination of principal components in water use efficiency of sesame (Sesamum indicum L.), maize (Zea mays L.) and common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), a split plots experiment based on RCBD design with three replications was conducted in 2014-2015 growing seasons, in Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran. Irrigation levels (50 and 100% of water requirement) and application and non-application of salicylic acid assigned to main and sub plots, respectively. The result showed that in sesame and maize, the highest seed yield obtained in conditions of salicylic acid application. Variables analyzed to 3 factors in sesame and 2 factors in maize and bean. In sesame, first factor included variables of dry matter yield, plant height, leaf erea index and soil phosphorous, variables of seed yield, seed weight per plant, crop growth rate and water use efficiency were in second factor and variables of EC, soil nitrogen and pH had the highest load in third factor. In maize, variables of seed yield, dry matter yield, seed weight per plant, plant height, crop growth rate, leaf erea index and water use efficiency were on first factor and variables of soil nitrogen, EC, pH and soil phosphorous had the highest load in second factor. In bean, variables of seed yield, dry matter yield, seed weight per plant, crop growth rate, soil nitrogen and phosphorous, EC and water use efficiency were in first factor and second factor included variables of leaf erea index, plant height and soil pH. In general, in all three plants, water use efficiency and effective variables in seed yield were in same factor, therefore it seems that any change in these variables will result in a direct change in water use efficiency.

In recent years, the effect of exogenous organic amendments on soil properties and plant growth characteristics has received renewed attention. Although the utilization of mineral fertilizers could be viewed as the best solution in terms of plant productivity, this approach is often inefficient in long-term in tropical ecosystems due to the limited ability of low-activity clay soils to retain nutrients. Intensive use of agrochemicals in agricultural systems is also known to have irreversible effects on soil and water resources. Vermicompost is currently being promoted to improve soil quality, reduce water and fertilizer needs and therefore increase the sustainability of agricultural practices in tropical countries. Vermicomposting is a process which stabilizes organic matter under aerobic and mesophilic conditions through the joint action of earthworms and microorganisms. The products of vermicomposting have been successfully used to suppress plant pests and diseases, as well as increase crop productivity. Cow manure is an excellent fertilizer containing nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and other nutrients. It also adds organic matter to the soil which may improve soil structure, aeration, soil moisture-holding capacity, and water infiltration. Biofertilizers are defined as preparations containing living cells or latent cells of efficient strains of microorganisms that help plant's nutrients uptake by their interactions in the rhizosphere when applied through seed or soil. They accelerate certain microbial processes in soil which augment the extent of availability of nutrients in a form easily assimilated by plants. Very often microorganisms are not as efficient in natural surroundings as one would expect them to be and therefore artificially multiplied cultures of efficient selected microorganisms play a vital role in accelerating the microbial processes in soil. Garlic (Allium sativum L.) is a very powerful medicinal plant that is often underestimated. Garlic is easy to grow and can be grown year-round in mild climates. Garlic cloves are used for consumption (raw and cooked) or for medicinal purposes. They have a pungent characteristic, spicy flavor that mellows and sweetens considerably with cooking.
In order to evaluate the effect of biofertilizers and organic and chemical fertilizers on yield and yield components of garlic (Allium sativum L.), a split plot experiment based on RCBD with three replications was conducted in 2015-2016 growing seasons, in Gonabad University, Iran. Main plot included different organic and chemical fertilizers (1- vermicompost, 2- cow manure, 3- chemical fertilizer and 4- control) and sub plot included plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (nitroxin, biophosphorous and control). In order to determine physic-chemical properties of soil, sampling was performed at the depth of 0 to 30 cm. Before cultivation, 7 and 30 t.ha-1 vermicompost and cow manure were added to the soil, respectively. Nutrient requirement of garlic for nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium from the chemical source was considered 40, 50 and 60 kg.ha-1. For application of biofertilizers, bulblets inoculated with plant growth promoting rhizobacteria for 15 minutes. Distance in and between rows was considered 10 and 20 cm, respectively. Weeds were controlled manually three times. At the end of the growing season, economic yield, biological yield, plant height, shoot dry weight, bulb diameter, bulblet weight per plant, bulblet volume per plant and bulblet number per plant were measured. Analysis of data variance was performed by using SAS software (Ver 9.1).
The results showed that simple effect of chemical fertilizer on bulb diameter was not significant but combined application of chemical fertilizer and biophosphorous increased bulb diameter as much as 18% compared to control. Combined application of nitroxin and cow manure increased bulblet weight per plant by 41% compared to single application of nitroxin. Biophosphorous plus vermicompost, cow manure and chemical fertilizer increased biological yield, respectively, by 25, 18 and 15% compared to single application of these fertilizers. The highest economic yield obtained in treatment of nitroxin plus cow manure. Organic and biological fertilizers are among the most significant resources for improvement of agricultural soil quality and increase in the yield of different medicinal plants. It has been reported that these ecological inputs provide favorable conditions for plant growth and development through improvement of physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil (10, 39), therefore, it can be concluded that improvement in most studied traits in the present study was due to the use of organic fertilizers. Fallahi et al. (22) reported the positive effects of organic and biological fertilizers on the improvement of quantitative and qualitative characteristics in chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.).
In general, the results of this research showed that combined use of organic and biological inputs can improve quantitative characteristics of plant, and thus decrease the environmental risks of chemical inpus.

IntroductionMaintenance of soil fertility as a permanent bed for continuous production of agricultural products is one of the most important issues affecting the sustainability of food production. In order to achieve healthy food production, application of ecological inputs such as cattle manure and organic acids are inevitable. Cattle manure is an excellent fertilizer containing nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and other nutrients. It also adds organic matter to the soil which may improve soil structure, aeration, soil moisture-holding capacity, and water infiltration. Humic substances are a mixture of different organic compounds that extract from various sources such as soil, humus, peat, oxidized lignite and coal. They are different in molecular size and chemical structure. A little amounts of humic acid increase soil fertility by improving the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of soil. Water super absorbents are water absorbing polymers (they may contain over 99% water). They have been defined as polymeric materials which exhibit the ability of swelling in water and retaining a significant fraction (> 20%) of water within their structure, without dissolving in water content. The applications of hydrogels are grown extensively. These materials have 100% natural structures and do not have any harm for the environment. Development of using super absorbent hydrogels to reduce crises such as soil erosion, frequent droughts or providing food security requires knowledge of their behaviors and performances in the soil. To determine the optimal irrigation water and fertilizer, the use of mathematical models is inevitable. One of the most common methods used to optimize these factors is the central composite design. A central composite design is an experimental design, useful in response surface methodology, for building a second order (quadratic) model for the response variable without needing to use a complete three-level factorial experiment. Considering the importance of bean as the main crop in Fabaceae family and also the lack of comprehensive information in the field of simultaneous optimization of water super absorbent, humic acid and cattle manure, in this study, different economic and environmental scenarios for bean (Phaseolous vulgaris L.) production via optimization of water super absorbent, humic acid and cattle manure application was evaluated.
Materials & MethodsIn order to estimate optimized application rates of water superabsorbent, humic acid and cattle manure in cultivation of bean, an experiment as Box Benken design using Response Surface Methodology, was conducted at Research Farm of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, during 2013-14 growing season. The experimental treatments were designed considering of the high and the low levels of water superabsorbent (80 and 160 kg.ha-1), humic acid (4 and 8 kg.ha-1) and cattle manure (0 and 30 t.ha-1) using MINITAB Ver. 17 statistical software, as the central point in every treatment replicated 3 times, so 15 treatment combinations were provided totally.
Results & DiscussionThe result showed that the highest seed yield obtained in the middle level of humic acid (6 kg.ha-1), so that application of 6 kg.ha-1 humic acid increased seed yield 15 and 11% compared to the levels of 4 and 8 kg.ha-1, respectively. The moderate increasing of cattle manure amounts led to an increase in dry matter yield, so that by increasing the amounts of cattle manure from 0 to 15 t.ha-1, dry matter yield increased by 36%, but more increasing the amounts of cattle manure from 15 to 30 t.ha-1 led to a decrease in dry matter yield by 4%. By increasing the amounts of superabsorbent, nitrogen losses decreased, so that the application of 120 kg.ha-1 superabsorbent decreased nitrogen losses 17% compared to the level of 80 kg.ha-1. Nitrogen use efficiency in the 6 kg.ha-1 level of humic acid was 16 and 13% more than the levels of 4 and 8 kg.ha-1, respectively. It seems that application of humic acid increased seed yield by improving soil physical properties. Amiri (2015) reported that humic acid and folic acid increased seed yield of Echium amoenum by 32 and 22% compared to control, respectively. The highest and the lowest seed yield of bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) obtained in treatments of 80 kg.ha-1 water super absorbent humic acid and Non-applicaion of water super absorbent and humic acid, respectively. El-Baz et al., (2012) evaluated effect of humic acid on yield and yield components of soybean (Glycine max L.) and reported that the highest seed yield obtained in level of 1000 ppm humic acid.
ConclusionsIn economic scenario, using 143.83 kg.ha-1 superabsorbent, 6.14 kg.ha-1 humic acid and 22.12 t.ha-1 cattle manure, resulted in 1613 kg.ha-1 seed yield. The nitrogen losses in environmental scenario decreased by 95% compared to economic scenario. Eco-environmental scenario attended to different aspects of resource optimization, therefore it seems using the optimized amounts of resources in this scenario (131.71 and 6.02 kg.ha-1 superabsorbent and humic acid and 0.30 t.ha-1 cattle manure, respectively) are the best levels of ecological inputs in this research.

In order to evaluation of simultaneous effects of planting dates and methods and ecofriendly inputs application on yield and yield components of Iranian Ox-Tangue (Echium amoenum Fisch. & Mey.), a split split plots experiment in time based on randomized complete block design with three replications was conducted in 2011-2014 growing seasons, in Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran. Two different planting dates (10 March 2011 and 4 Aprill 2011), three different types of biofertilizers and chemical fertilizers (mycorrhiza (Glomus mosseae), Biosulfur, chemical fertilizer and control), two different types of planting methods (direct seeding and transplanting) and two agronomic year assigned to main plots, sub plots, sub-sub plots, sub-sub-sub plots, respectively. The results showed that the highest dry flower yield obtained in March planting date and seeding method and in conditions of mycorrhiza application. Application of biofertilizers and chemical fertilizers in both of planting dates and both of planting methods increased seed yield, so that application of mycorrhiza, biosulfur and chemical fertilizer in transplanting planting method and Aprill planting date increased seed yield 45, 42 and 35% compared to control, respectively. In general, the results of this research, it seems direct seeding of Echium amoenum in March and application of ecological inputs especially mycorrhiza and biosulfur in Mashhad conditions is better than other treatments.

This research was aimed to investigate the effects of plant density and organic and chemical fertilizers on some phytochemical characteristics of Iranian ox-tongue (Echium amoenum Fisch. & Mey.). The study was conducted as a split plot experiment based on RCBD design with three replications, conducted in 2011-2014, in Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran. The main and sub plots included three plant densities (10, 5 and 3 plants per m2) and three types of organic fertilizers and one type of chemical fertilizer (compost, vermicompost, cow manure, nitrogen chemical fertilizer and control), respectively. The results showed that the highest antioxidant activity was obtained in a density of 10 plants per m2 (79 mg/ml) and the highest total phenols was observed in a density of 5 plants per m2 (51 mg GAE/g flower DW). Compost, vermicompost, cow manure and chemical fertilizer increased total phenols to 51, 35, 40 and 63%, respectively compared to control. Application of vermicompost and cow manure in a density of 3 plants per m2 increased total flavonoid up to 39 and 38%, respectively compared to control. The highest total anthocyanin was obtained in a density of 5 plants per m2. Vermicompost and cow manure increased the seed oil (10 and 13%), and seed protein content (34 and 13%), respectively compared to control. In general, according to the findings of this research, it seems that the use of eco-friendly inputs and determining the optimal density of Iranian ox-tongue could result in improving the quality and health of product and minimizing the damage caused by chemical inputs.

In recent years, the effect of exogenous organic amendments on soil properties and plant growth characteristics has received renewed attention. Although the utilization of mineral fertilizers could be viewed as the best solution in terms of plant productivity, this approach is often inefficient in the long-term in tropical ecosystems due to the limited ability of low-activity clay soils to retain nutrients. Intensive use of agrochemicals in agricultural systems is also known to have irreversible effects on soil and water resources.
The use of organic and biological fertilizers are important strategies to reduce harmful effects of chemical fertilizers in sustainable management of agroecosystems.
Spent mushroom compost is the residual compost waste generated by the mushroom production industry. It is readily available and its formulation generally consists of a combination of wheat straw, dried blood, horse manure and ground chalk, composted together. It is an excellent source of humus, although much of its nitrogen content will have been used up by the composting and growing mushrooms. It remains, however, a good source of general nutrients, as well as a useful soil conditioner.
Most mineral soils contain mycorrhizal fungi, but often at levels that are too low for adequate colonization, especially in disturbed soils. Mycorrhizae are host specific and will only colonize certain plants; so in some soils, there are no native mycorrhizae that will benefit these plants. Therefore, most plants would benefit from mycorrhizae addition to the soil. Symbiosis begins when fungal spores germinate and emerging thread linke structures, called hyphae, enters the epidermis of plant roots. After colonization of the root, the fungus sends out a vast network of hyphae throughout the soil to form a greatly enhanced absorptive surface area. This results in improved nutrient acquisition and uptake by plant roots, particularly elemental phosphorus, zinc, manganese and copper and water. In return, the plant provides carbohydrates for the fungi.
In order to study the effect of mushroom compost and mycorrhiza on yield of garlic (Allium sativum L.), a split plot experiment based on RCBD design with three replications was conducted in 2010-11 growing season in research farm of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran. Mycorrhiza (Glomus mosseae) (use and non-use) and spent mushroom compost levels (SMC) (0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 t ha-1) were considered as the main and sub factors. In order to determine the physic-chemical properties of soil, sampling was done at a depth of 0 to 30 cm. Distance on and between rows was considered 10 and 20 cm, respectively. In order to weeds control, manual weeding was done three times. At the end of the growing season, economic yield, biological yield, plant height, shoot dry weight, bulb diameter, bulblet weight per plant, bulblet volume per plant and bulblet number per plant were measured. Analysis of variance was done with SAS Ver 9.1 software.
Result and The results showed that the effect of different levels of mushroom compost was significant on the most studied traits, but mycorrhiza had no significant effect on yield and yield components of garlic. Based on the results, highest diameter and length of the bulb and bulblets were observed in application of 100 t ha-1 SMC. The highest economic yield (12760 kg ha-1) was observed in application of 100 t ha-1 SMC, so that the application of SMC increased economic yield by 48 percent compared to control. The highest dry matter production and harvest index also were observed in application of 100 t ha-1 SMC.
Organic and biological fertilizers are among the most significant resources for development of agricultural soil quality and increase in the yield of different medicinal plants. It has been reported that this ecological inputs provide favorable conditions for plant growth and development through improvement of physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil (Cabrera et al., 2009), therefore, it can be concluded that improvement of the most studied traits in the present study were due to use of organic fertilizers.
In general, the results showed that it seems use of SMC can improve quantitative and qualitative characteristics of garlic, thus it can be considered as a suitable alternative to chemical fertilizers.