azam ghasemi

The purpose of the current research is to examine the challenges caused by Corona in the tourism industry in the field of employment and to examine the ways out of it. Since the tourism industry has suffered the most economic impact during the outbreak of Corona virus, the choice of this industry and its role in the employment and unemployment of the country is of particular importance. The interdisciplinary nature of this industry, from social sciences to economics, geography, architecture, management, and medicine, is so intertwined that it cannot be considered as a separate field. The research method is qualitative and data collection was done using in-depth interviews with experts and experts in the field of tourism and marketing. The result of the in-depth interview with experts led to the identification of 12 challenges, 23 consequences and 42 strategies, and finally, 18 practical strategies were selected from all strategies and their relationship was analyzed.

In the current work, a new reproducing kernel method (RKM) for solving nonlinear forced Duffing equations with integral boundary conditions is developed. The proposed collocation technique is based on the idea of RKM and the orthonormal Bernstein polynomials (OBPs) approximation together with the quasi-linearization method. In our method, contrary to the classical RKM, there is no need to use the Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization procedure and only a few nodes are used to obtain efficient numerical results. Three numerical examples are included to show the applicability and efficiency of the suggested method. Also, the obtained numerical results are compared with some results in the literature.

Today, many organizations ask their employees to be more creative, express more and accept more responsibility. The silence of employees, by limiting employees' comments, reduces the effectiveness of change processes, and many organizations complain about it. By preventing negative feedback, the behavioral phenomenon hinders effective organizational transformation and development, so the organization loses the ability to investigate and correct errors. Therefore, it is very important to pay attention to this common problem in organizations.The main goal of the current research is to provide a method for identifying and prioritizing factors affecting organizational silence using the Fuzzy Dimtel method in Khorasan Razavi investment companies. The statistical population of this research consists of 12 experts in the field of financial management and investment in "financial and investment institutions" who were selected based on the purposeful sampling approach. In this research, by studying the theoretical foundations of internal and external research, he identified 25 factors affecting organizational silence in these companies, which include managerial factors, employee factors, and organizational factors.In the present study, two questionnaires were used to collect data. In order to analyze the data, two methods of Fuzzy Dimetal and t-test were used. Then, Fuzzy Dimetal test was performed to identify the influential (causal) and influential (disabled) factors.

One of the important topics in contemporary philosophy of religion is religious epistemology. This issue is predominantly discussed with an analytical approach. Of course, attempts have been made to infer the views of philosophers regarding this matter by referring to continental philosophies. Similarly, insights from thinkers in the Iranian-Islamic tradition have been utilized to gain a better understanding of this topic. In this article, I will discuss the doctrine of education, which is considered one of the most crucial foundations of Ismaili Shia religious epistemology. There is a notable difference between Ismailiyyah (Batinyyah, didacticism) and Imamiyyah. However, they share an opinion in one of the most important beliefs, i.e., believing in the infallible Imam and obeying him. Analyzing the theory of education and the criticisms included in it can help to better understand the theory of Imamate among the Imams. Moreover, understanding the doctrine of education is of fundamental importance in comprehending the religious epistemology of Ismailia. The problem addressed in this research is the analysis of Ghazali's criticism of the doctrine of education.

In this article, with the aim of influencing the leadership of the superior employee, the service of the employees was mediated by the organizational commitment and loyalty of the employees among the branches of Sepah Bank in Mashhad. The present research is an applied research in terms of purpose and descriptive-correlational research in terms of data collection and implementation. The data collection tool in this research is a questionnaire. The statistical population includes the managers of Sepah Bank Mashhad branches with 147 and a sample size of 108 people, which was determined by simple random sampling method. Data analysis was performed using Amos software and structural equation method. Also, t-test was used to analyze the data related to each of the research hypotheses. The results showed that the service leadership has an effect on the staff leaving the Sepah Bank branches in Mashhad and the employees' loyalty mediates the effect of the superior service leadership of the employees serving in the Sepah Bank branches. The commitment of the organization is mediated by the leadership of the superior service provider of the employees in the branches of Sepah Bank in Mashhad.

One of the important entries in philosophy of medicine is the discussion on the reliance of medical knowledge and the health system on fundamental knowledge and the analysis of its philosophical roots. It is noteworthy that, not enough attention has been paid to this issue, to the extent that sometimes it is not deemed necessary for medicine and the health system. This study endeavors to explore a history of philosophical discussions in relation to medical issues among Islamic and contemporary philosophers, physicians, and especially philosopher-physicians. This study also touches on issues such as: What is health? Is health an objective fact or a credit matter? What is the relationship between illness and health? What is the origin of health and illness? Can non-physical things be effective in the health of the human body? What is pain? What are the criteria for classification of diseases? What is a mental illness and what is it like? How should the physician’s relationship with the patient be? Is it possible to prescribe death for reasons such as incurability or suffering? These are among objective and field questions of medical knowledge and the health system. In the attempt to answer the mentioned questions, a researcher is confronted with fundamental philosophical issues, especially philosophical anthropology. Indeed, different philosophical views on basic issues such as anthropology and the stages of man's life, philosophy of science, and the scientific methods can have a significant effect on formation of medical knowledge, and thereby, the health system. As a result, scientific principles and methods of diagnosis and treatment in a range of different medical schools, from modern medicine to traditional and complementary medicines, have undergone fundamental revisions and changes. This can lead to formation of medical systems over time, each of which is recognized in its own epistemological system and arising from unique philosophical foundations.

The purpose of the research is to identify, prioritize and present a conceptual model of the dimensions and components of employees' occupational values. The research method is mixed. The qualitative statistical population includes 20 experts and quantitatively 522 official personnel of Mashhad Municipality headquarters. The sampling method is qualitative, targeted, non-probable and available and quantitatively stratified and relative. The size of the statistical sample was determined based on Morgan's formula of 221 people, and in the qualitative section, the dimensions and components of occupational values were identified using the Delphi technique in 4 stages. Quantitative data analysis was done at two descriptive and inferential levels. In descriptive statistics, frequency tables, mean, standard deviation, and in inference, Kolomogrove Smirnov test was used to determine the normality of variables and one-sample tests to answer research questions with Spss software. The results showed that 10 dimensions and 24 components of job values were identified and a conceptual model was presented that can be used as a basis for other public, private, non-service, financial, economic, etc. organizations and Mashhad Municipality to fix job values. Facilitate between employees and promote things that are considered valuable for employees to plan and take necessary actions.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of visual accuracy training on improving the reading performance of students with special learning disabilities with the type of reading (dyslexic) of elementary school in Mashhad in the academic year 1396. The population of this study is all female students with dyslexia in the second and third grades of Mashhad's randomly selected and then by available sampling method 30 students with reading disorders were selected and divided into experimental and control groups. In the pre-test, both groups were assessed by the diagnostic test of Isfahan reading level. The experimental group then received accurate visual training in eight (8) sessions while the control groups received no training. Finally, both groups were measured again with the questionnaire. The results showed that teaching visual accuracy and purity has improved the reading performance of students with special learning disabilities with the type of reading (dyslexia) and the main hypothesis of the research is confirmed at a significance level of 0.05.

While there is no real tension between faith and reason for Muslim scholars, in post-Kantian philosophy of religion there have been serious doubts about the rationality of religious doctrines. It is noteworthy that Ghazali’s critiques of philosophical reasoning are totally different from Kant’s. Ghazali denied the reliability of pure reasoning without the help of faith, while Kant denied the access of reason to the intangible world. By paying attention to Kant’s philosophy for understanding the very difference of the faith/reason tension in Islamic tradition and contemporary philosophy of religion and employing an extra-religious approach and an analytical-critical method, the present research has studied Ghazali’s corpus and concluded what concerned Ghazali was faith, not reason; since he held that only a pious believer could be saved from the hell. He was not concerned about reasoning without revelation and religious belief. Ghazali maintained that philosophical reasoning falls short of the truth of affairs. One could say, from a different point of view, he was aware of the limits of reasoning in the same way as Kant was; but unlike Kant, through faith, he arrived at matters which are far from the access of reason. Finally, although in Kant’s thoughts, faith has lost its rational bases, Ghazali was not in the same situation. He held that mystical, prophetical reasoning, which he called “al-Qalb” (the Heart), could obtain the truth and has no conflict with faith and revelation, and it is just human reasoning that makes judgments that could come in conflict with religious beliefs. Previous research saw Ghazali as fideistic; although thinking of him of rationalist or fideistic, could be easy based on his Ashʿari commitment, but after enough reflection on his works, it turns out to be difficult to do so because one could find both evidence for his rationality or fideism. Regarding his prioritizing faith over reason, there is a lot of textual evidence in his corpus; his tendency toward reason is not very explicit but can be perceived implicitly from his works. Despite his efforts to emphasize revelation and faith, as well as left human reasoning for revelation, what arises afterward, which has a kind of validity even for him, is the same common reason. Ghazali interpreted the prima facie meaning of Quranic verses which are impossible from a rational viewpoint, such as the corporeality of God. There is no middle ground between faith and reason, and yet Ghazali still stands in the very middle; thus, he could not be seen as just fideistic. If he wanted to demarcate what could be interpreted, he would have taken the side of reason. At the same time, comparing his rationality with Descartes’ is a naïve position to hold. Mystic-minded Ghazali did not see the issue of faith and reason like a philosopher and, ultimately, due to his obedience to God, as well as the fact that his main concern is salvation, he prioritized faith over reason. It is not possible to speak of tension or competence for a mystic-minded like him.

The main purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of rational-emotional behavior therapy (REBT) on behavioral activation/inhibition systems (BAS / BIS), high-risk sexual behaviors, and experimental avoidance in adolescents with a history of running away from home. The research method was quasi-experimental with a pre-test-post-test design with the control group. The statistical population of the study included adolescents referring to transient harm reduction centers and night shelters for men and women in the Shush-Harandi area of Tehran in the first 6 months of 1400. Using the available sampling method, 30 people were selected and randomly selected. The experimental and control groups (15 people in each group) were assigned. The scale measuring tools were Inhibition / Behavioral Activation Systems (BIS/BAS) (Carver and White, 1994), the High-Risk Sexual Behaviors Questionnaire (RSBQ) (Zarei et al., 2010), and the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire (AAQ- II) (Band et al., 2011). Behavior therapy with REBT approach on behavioral activation/inhibition systems, high-risk sexual behaviors, and experimental avoidance was performed on the experimental group for 8 sessions of 90 minutes. The results of multivariate analysis of covariance showed that group counseling with the REBT approach had an effect on reducing the symptoms of behavioral activation/inhibition systems, high-risk sexual behaviors, and experimental avoidance (P<0/05). Due to the effectiveness of rational-emotional behavior therapy on the symptoms of behavioral activation/inhibition systems, high-risk sexual behaviors, and experimental avoidance, it is recommended to conduct training workshops based on these concepts in harm reduction centers.

The aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of positive thinking therapy on improving the quality of life and life expectancy of patients with diabetes. The statistical population of the present study included patients with diabetes in Kashmar city who were introduced by the University of Medical Sciences. 30 people were randomly selected and divided into two groups of 15 people. The research instruments were the Quality of Life Questionnaire (IRQOL) and Schneider (1991). The results of analysis of covariance showed that the quality of life and life expectancy of diabetics who received positive thinking intervention had a significant increase compared to members of the control group; Therefore, positive thinking therapy can improve the quality of life and life expectancy of diabetics.In general, chronic diseases, including diabetes, will lead to many clinical, social and psychological problems, which in turn will limit the physical and mental activity of people and reduce the quality of life and life expectancy.

Philosophical understanding of the concept of God, and theological understanding of the concept of God from the beginning has faced challenges and conflicts that may be the culmination of this conflict in the Tahafat of Ghazali Philosophers who excommunicated philosophers for believing in three issues. The purpose of this research is to re-read Ghazali's critiques of philosophers and to test his point of view, then to examine the strengths and weaknesses of Ibn Rushd's defense. Al-Ghazali has rightly realized that proving the existence of God is a difficult path by proving the step of the universe, however, believing in the temporal existence of the universe also has false consequences that are no less than the consequences of the teachings of philosophers. Regarding the knowledge of God in detail, Ibn Rushd's answer seems appropriate and can solve Ghazali's objection in this regard. Al-Ghazali differs from Ibn Rushd in that he cites the Qur'an to prove the knowledge of God in all its details, but the philosopher comments on something about which he cannot have a correct and accurate understanding. Regarding the physical resurrection, Ibn Rushd harmonizes the interpretation between philosophical truth and religious teaching, but with the disagreement of Ibn Rushd and Ghazali about the interpretation in the final judgment.

To answer the problem of incompatibility between divine providence and creaturely freedom, Molinism suggests the theory of middle knowledge, a theory that claims by assuming God’s knowledge of counterfactuals of freedom, we can resolve the problem without giving up neither divine providence nor creaturely freedom. Through His knowledge of the conditionals and actualizing their antecedents, He knows what creatures will freely do. In this way, God’s foreknowledge and sovereignty can be compatible with creatures’ freedom. The present paper attempts to show that there is a sort of incoherency in Molinism. For, while Molinism presupposes divine immutability thesis, it attributes a will to God that requires moving from possibility to actuality in divine nature. We argue that because counterfactuals of freedom need to be actualized by divine will, claiming God's knowledge of counterfactuals of freedom leads to a rejection of divine immutability thesis which makes Molinism incoherent. We conclude that the proposed objection to the theory of God’s middle knowledge of counterfactuals of freedom is a crucial objection regardless of the success of its proponents in answering the objections concerning the truth-makers of such counterfactuals.

For al-Ghazali, “prophet-hood means preaching God’s words and the prophet is the preacher of God’s words”. The main question of the present study is what part in al-Ghazali’s view the prophet has in knowledge about God and what challenges his views bring. A discussion of “miracle” as the reason for the truthfulness of the prophet is absolutely essential for tackling that question. From al-Ghazali’s point of view, prophets’ knowledge is gained through a light shed onto their hearts, rather than through sensations or education. Some recipients of the prophets’ knowledge only imitate what they hear, while some enjoy insights. In al-Ghazali’s work, imitation is of two kinds: acceptable and unacceptable. He believed that Islamic scholars (ūlamā) can achieve understanding on their own and it is only the masses who imitate.       One of al-Ghazali’s stances where one could see the role of the prophet in his religious epistemology is on the necessity of thanking the Giver of blessings (wujūb-i shukr-i mun’im): from his point of view, the necessity is jurisprudential and stated by the prophet rather than rational. According to him, reason cannot achieve knowledge about the affairs because of which the prophet was appointed, and this is why the prophet was appointed. But, if reason cannot achieve knowledge about the affairs, how can it affirm the prophet’s prophet-hood and message? In some of his works al-Ghazali regards miracle as the proof for the truthfulness of the prophet. In some others, in addition to miracle he refers to such evidence as prophet’s words, actions, and states in which the prophet was, reported numerously by different narrators and through different chains of transmission. He maintains that the role of reason and theory is merely that through miracle they make sense of the truthfulness of the prophet. Then they depose themselves, admitting that whatever the prophet says about God and the Day of Judgment is acceptable. And this is among the affairs in understanding which reason enjoys no independence. Nor does it understand its impossibility. But even if we involve reason at the stage of proving truthfulness of the prophet, then it is the reason which should affirm the good of the truthfulness (ḥusn-i sidq), thereby jurisprudential good and evil being questioned.   From a point of view outside religion and using a rational and argumentative method this study critiqued and examined al-Ghazali’s teaching on prophet-hood, and reached the conclusion that his view changed in his different works. In his theosophical works he said that reason judges that anyone who claims to be a prophet and produces a miracle is necessarily truthful, and then reason withdraws, assumes an instrumental role, and submits to the prophet’s remark. In some other works, however, he does not consider miracle to be enough, as miracle might be confused with magic, and therefore he thinks that proving the prophet’s truthfulness needs further signs. In general, al-Ghazali’s explanation of the epistemological role of the prophet in people’s acquisition of knowledge has many flaws which have been addressed in this article. On the one hand, he acknowledges reason’s limits and thinks that appointment of the prophet is accounted for by the fact that the prophet understands affairs that go beyond reasoning. On the other hand, he states that reason can discern the existence of the prophet as well as the fact that the prophet can understand affairs beyond reasoning. Yet it cannot understand what the prophet understands. There occurs a paradox, which is how it can be rationally proved that a person can understand affairs beyond reasoning. When reason does not have access to the affairs, it might have no judgment: there could be a mention of faith only. Reason can only consider the possibility of such a thing. But it cannot prove it i.e. cannot demonstrate undoubtedly and rationally that the one who is the prophet can understand affairs beyond reasoning. In fact, on the one hand it seems that reason is the chief determinant, as it understands prophet’s truthfulness. On the other hand, even if we ignore the challenges connected to the issue, it seems that the prophet plays a very determinant part in religious knowledge, and that without revelation given by the prophet reason fails to enter the field of religious knowledge. Furthermore, since in al-Ghazali's view the prophet is connected to the main source of knowledge and is taught by God and Gabriel, his words are preferable over limited human reason’s judgment, and thus although al-Ghazali tries hard to provide an argument for prophet’s truthfulness, in his religious epistemology the prophet has the highest status.

The purpose of the present study is to extract the theoretical principles related to peace in the philosophy of Mullā Sadrā and to show the practical and pragmatic potentials of his philosophy in this regard. The method of study is descriptive analysis and the results showed that one of the root causes of violence and war is the differences among humans. These differences are meaningful only in plurality so Mullā Sadrā believes that essence is at the root of plurality. On the other hand, based on his important philosophical principle that is existentialism, he regards the essence credential existing only in mind while what constitutes reality in the external world is called existence and is common between all creatures. What causes disagreement and thus leads to violence and quarrel is something that has no essence and, in other words, is credential. On the other hand, the world of unity in the view of Mullā Sadrā is the world of oneness, harmony, and peace because all the things that are seemingly different and sometimes contradictory, are indeed dimensions of a single truth and thus a part from a unified whole. The focus of Mullā Sadrā’s ontological viewpoint on spiritual-substantive commonality between creatures and the current of a unified truth in them all can be considered as an important foundation to place them in a framework in which a unifying circle ensures their convergence despite their differences and distinctions. This convergence can be regarded as a theoretical tenet for deriving the concept of peace and peace studies from Mullā Sadrā’s philosophy.

Free will issue has been discussed in Islamic Theology (Kalām) as “the creation of action”, a controversy which divides Islamic theological schools. Fakhr Razi as an Ash’arite Theologian put it under scrutinize in some of his own theological works. Although he is an Ash’arite theologian, but denied “acquisition (Kasb) theory” based on the principle of excluded middle. He, then, to prove that creatures cannot create actions, i.e., God creates actions for human beings, advanced a few arguments. In this paper his arguments will be discussed and studied to assess their authenticity. He held that if creatures were the creators of their own acts, they would know the details of action, e.g., if I wanted to go from A to B, I would know how many meters I have to pass to reach B. But this implication, which Razi took it for granted is not true; because I can go from A to B without knowing how many meters I have to pass. Thus the argument could be refuted. In another argument, he put the idea forward that when there is a “motivation”, the agent cannot avoid that motivation; thus s/he will do what the motivation provokes. Therefore, there is not such a thing as free will. It will be concluded that Razi holds a kind of determinism based on what express so far.

There is a will which is attributed to Razi which have been a controversial topic from ancient times until now. Preferring Qur’anic method to theology and philosophy, some scholars, such as Ibn Emad Hanbali and Fathalla Kholeif, think of that as a kind of repentance from rational discussion. There is a statement which is apparently narrate by Ibn Salah, quote Razi’s word that he regretted studying theology and philosophy; that he said: “I regretted studying theology (Kalam)” and then he wept. This quote support former interpreting. We proved, in this paper, that that interpretation is not authentic and the meaning and purpose of it is different; thus it is not a kind of repent, but rather it is a moderate rationalism (opposite to both classical rationalism and fideism), which he held in his life and could be found in his works. And, it is showed that what is quoted from Ibn Salah is not reliable; because could not be found in Ibn Salah’s works, perhaps it is a transited saying from him. Those writers, who quoted from Ibn Salah, a few centuries after him; thus it is not acceptable. Therefore, this narration is not authentic. This story is important, because it targeted reasoning in Fakhr system of thoughts; if it is true, then it shows that Kalam is not in harmony with real, orthodox Islam, as those who mentioned it maintain. But if not true, it shows that Razi did not believe that theology (Kalam) is not a real part of Islamic sciences. As a matter of historic facts, there is not an authentic source for the story. Therefore, it seems that someone made it up to justify their fanatic, extremist, fundamental interpretation of Islam, in which they have not tolerated any kind of reasoning, including Islamic theology (Kalam), the field of study that Razi well represent. For Ash’ari scholars like Fakhr Razi, reasoning is a useful, discursive tool to assess and study claims and beliefs, and particularly to defend religious doctrines. However, their attitude toward reasoning and intellect (Aql) itself is far from their Mu’tazali opponents. While Mutazalis see reasoning as a source for inferring truth, their Ash’ari opponents see it as a tool to assess claims, interpreting holy texts, including Qur’anic verses. On the other hand, for Fakhr’s part, in the will we could find him in a mediocre rationality position. He stated that what he discussed in his life was not of stubbornness, carelessness or recklessness, but just for the sake of reason. In other works he can be seen committed to Quranic verses and holy texts, beyond reasoning as a source superior to the text; so to speak, he only used reasoning for understanding; and that he put the “Quranic method” on the top of the list, do not imply that he denied reasoning and respective fields of study totally. But a few figures, like Ibn Emad al-Hanbali or Kholief, saw it as a kind of repentance of discursive methods, which is impossible to justify such a position. As to Razi we could see that he had held such a position in his whole career, as he had scrutinized philosophical doctrines, assessing every claim, and always put the Quran on the top of everything else. Therefore, to say Razi repented Kalam is not a valid, authentic conclusion.

The nature of health and sickness and their relationship with each other is the first and most necessary theoretical issue in medical philosophy, upon which all other discussions in this field depend, and which has provoked several theoretical and practical controversies. Similar to some Islamic philosophers, Mullā Ṣadrā has also dealt with this problem. In his discussions, he explains Ibn Sīnā’s standpoint in this regard and defends him against his critics, the most prominent of whom is Fakhr al-Din Razi. In doing so, Mullā Ṣadrā follows the common wisdom of his own time and defines health as a state or condition of the soul through which mental acts are properly issued from their own specific sources and emphasizes the psychological nature of both health and sickness. Being more straightforward than Ibn Sīnā, Mullā Ṣadrā corresponds the relationship between health and sickness to that between habit and non-habit. However, he does not clearly refer to his position as to what comes between health and sickness. A study of Mullā Ṣadrā’s works indicates that, apart from his direct references to the nature of health and sickness, one can define health as “a mode of the existence of the soul which enables it to perform its acts properly at the level of physical and elemental body” based on the principles of the Transcendent Philosophy. In the same vein, through emphasizing the ontological nature of health and non-being nature of sickness and, accordingly, their being graded, one can refute the existence of any boundary or intermediary between them and, as a result, portray a distinct picture of health and sickness.

One of the common interpretations of Sadra's epistemology is a view that, despite adherence to Sadra's existential look in explaining the truth of knowledge, has a meaningful difference in the other issues and results of the discussion, such as the relation between knowledge and mental existence, the determination of the essential known in the acquired knowledge and other similar issues, with Sadra's explicit opinions. The core of these differences is the belief in the separation and existential otherness between knowledge and mental existence, and from the results of this separation, we can point out that mental existence is in the shadow of knowledge, and the existence of knowledge is essential known, and the mental existence is accidental known. However, we will show in this study that the separation for Sadra is merely conventional, and that knowledge and mental existence from his point of view have an existential unity, and contrary to the above interpretation, this is the mental existence which is essential known in the acquired knowledge, and it is in the shadow of external beings, not the existence of knowledge.

In this study, we first begin with the general principles common to the materialist views and the opposite views of dualism, which we call them "advocators of materiality of perception"; these arguments are divided into two general categories: arguments which has been made in the rejection of substance dualism and those given for proving physicalism. Then we analyze these reasons. Finally, by examining various reasons, it became clear that two views of behaviorism and functionalism did not provide a philosophical reason for their claim; the reasons given for eliminative materialism and identity theory are notmuch serious because they are based on Induction or based on hope for the advancement of neuropsychological knowledge in the future. But it was shown that explanatory impotence, evolutionary history, neural dependency, drugs effect on consciousness proofs and the proof of split brain cannot be ruled out; however, with the view of Sadrul Motaleenin, based on being human soul Jesmania' tolHodooth and Roohania' tolBagha, these proofs are compatible.

One of the most important issues in theology and philosophy of religion is the problem of evil and its relation to God and his omnipotence and omnibenevolence. Contemporary theologian and philosopher, David Ray Griffin, regards the efforts to answer the problem of evil as inconclusive. He designates traditional theists, who believe in God’s supernatural interference in the cause and effect chain of events, Supernaturalists. He believes that they interpret evil as only appearing evil. He tries to identify and refute certain beliefs, in traditional theology, which do not tolerate the co-existence of God and evil. Griffin criticizes traditional worldviews and proves that traditional theology, on one hand, by presuming God’s omnipotence, faces serious issues in justifying evil; and on the other hand, considering the idea of creatio ex nihilo, it virtually fails to answer the problem of evil. Allover he holds that defense will not suffice in responding to the problem of evil and that the right path for theists is to propose a theodicy which would explain evil better than atheist accounts.

Most of definitions presented for material/immaterial thing have a common form: first they define material thing, then they define immaterial thing as a thing that is not material. There is a common objection to these kind of definitions: all of them are such that we cannot define something between material thing and immaterial thing. In this research we try to investigate common definitions of material/immaterial thing, then web prove that according to Mulla Sadra's viewpoint about Substantial Motion of human soul, we should define some levels between pure material and pure immaterial, In fact there should be a spectrum beginning from pure material thing and ending to pure immaterial thing. Then we show that this new viewpoint to definition of material/immaterial thing (spectrum view) is not compatible with traditional definition system that uses Alhasr alAghi. Finally we propose a new approach toward definition of immaterial (and material) thing using fuzzy logic.

The principles of the Transcendent Philosophy as well as empirical observations indicate that people are different from each other in their primary nature. This explains why they are different in terms of their free will and voluntary acts. The present paper investigates Mulla Sadra’s view of the effects of human nature on their voluntary acts and examines its role in accepting responsibility. The formation of human nature in Mulla Sadra’s philosophy is different from that in other schools of philosophy. In the Transcendent Philosophy, the human nature originates in the material mode of the soul, and the differences among the natures of different human beings are rooted in the differences among corporeal substances. The attachment of this affair to the necessity of the cause-effect relation is the reason why moral responsibility is not explainable in Mulla Sadra’s philosophy. This problem poses certain challenges to Sadrian practical wisdom, the most important of which is the challenge of explaining the system of duty and recompense.

Causality, in metaphysics as well as natural sciences, has been discussed for long by western philosophy and Islamic philosophy.Metaphysical explanation of causality, however, has been of a great importance in Islamic philosophy. Empirical philosophy together with Hume’s criticism and finally philosophy of Kant who denied any metaphysical knowledge have made it impossible for causality to be metaphysically explained in western modern tradition.It was, then, hardly possible to prove divine existence by reference to the principle of causality. However, Islamic philosophy, particularly Mulla Sadra's metaphilosophy, has taken the principle intact. Comparing, at first, David Hume and MortezaMotahari on a concept of causality, this article outlines the differences in between in the end. Based on the very fundamental priority of existence and regarding western thinker’s literature, Motahari made a new look at Sadra’smetaphilosophy and attempted to a rational explication of necessity principle, and cause-effect cognation arriving at a point to regard it a real and external principle. Hume, however,aimed to an empirical explanation of principle of causality. And in doing so, he destabilized necessity and cognation principle coming to a subjective causality. Yet, it is, to some extent, difficult to appropriately answer some challenges made by Hume against natural causality. His criticisms are still in need of some refashioned answers.

In Islamic culture, the Mu‘tazilite were the first group who employed the rational method and considered the intellect to be the sole means of knowing the truth and to be independent from religion. That is why they have been referred to as the followers of the “religion of the intellect”. The Mu‘tazilite granted a kind of sanctity to the intellect and maintained that when human beings perfect their intellect, they can perceive essential truths, which consist of the knowledge of God and the knowledge of the good and evil. On the other hand, they never denied revelation but believed that it cannot be in contrast to human intellect. They also stated that since the intellect has a longer history than revelation, it is identical with light, without which no one can be led to the right path. The purpose of revelation is to increase intellectual knowledge and make it more accurate. The Mu‘tazilite, thus, concluded that the intellect is the criterion for revelation. This idea was one of their most important principles. Hence, it can be said that, for this group, ethics is based on a kind of intellect which is prior to religion. One of their most famous principles is, “thinking before hearing”. The Mu‘tazilite are mutikallim, and a mutikallim looks at the intellectual human being as a responsible individual before God. They consider the intellect to be sufficient regarding Man’s need to revelation at the outset of obligation. This paper deals with Mu‘tazilites’ view of the relationship between religion and ethics.