ebrahim sedaghati

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF-phylum Glomeromycota) are one of the most important beneficial soil microorganisms that form a mutualistic symbiotic relationship with the roots of more than 80% of terrestrial plant species. These fungi improve the mineral nutrients (especially phosphorus) and water uptake and enhance plant tolerance to various biotic and abiotic stresses such as pathogens, salinity, drought and heavy metals contamination. Hence, they play a key role in the establishment of plant communities in different ecosystems. The present study aimed to identify AMF species associated with different plants roots based on morphological characteristics, comparison of spore’s population and determine the percentage of root colonization in the Kolah'ghazi protected region in Isfahan Province.

At first, 12 plants were selected from the predominant plants that are AMF hosts. The sampling was conducted from a depth of 5 to 30 cm in the rhizosphere of each plant and the soil and root samples were collected. Roots fragments were stained in lactoglycerol blue and the percentage of root colonization was calculated. AMF spores were extracted from each air-dried soil sample (300-500 g) by wet sieving and centrifugation in sugar solution methods. Also, spore populations were determined in a gram of soil with three replications. Then, the isolated spores were identified based on morphological characteristics such as color, shape, size, wall structure, hyphal attachment, etc.

Microscopic observations indicated that all the sampled plant roots were colonized by AMF. The percentage of AMF colonization ranged from 9-92% among plants species and the highest and lowest of it were observed in Thymus vulgaris and Alyssum homolocarpum plants, respectively. The highest spore density was in the rhizosphere of the Th. vulgaris and the lowest was related to Lepidium draba. The statistical analysis showed that there is a positive correlation between the percentage of mycorrhizal colonization and the number of spores in most plants. Based on morphological criteria, 12 species of AMF belonging to 8 genera Claroidoglomus (C. etunicatum and C. luteum), Funneliformis (F. caesaris and F. geosporum), Glomus (G. ambisporum), Rhizophagus (Rh. aggregatum and Rh. fasciculatus), Septoglomus (Se. africanum, Se. constrictum and Se. deserticola), Entrophospora (E. infrequens), Gigaspora (Gi. gigantea) and Scutellospora (Scutellospora sp.) were identified. Se. africanum is new for mycoflora from Iran and other identified species have previously been reported from different regions and crops.

Due to the importance of AMF, identification and reproduction of these fungi for exploiting their potential in regenerate arid areas, especially protected areas, can be necessary. However, further research is needed to more accurately identify AM species.

Application of sulfur to control the common pistachio psylla has been nowadays popular. The psylla is one of the main pistachios’ pests. Aspergillus flavus, the most important aflatoxin producer, has a strong impact in the mycoflora of pistachio orchards. The present study has been conducted to determine the effects of sulfur on A. flavus. Therefore,    a toxigenic A. flavus strain was cultured on potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium, and the effects of mineral sulfur, refinery sulfur and sodium metabisulfite were closely monitored on fungal mycelial dry weight, germination of spores, germ tube and mycelium germination. The Fungal parameters measurement for sulfur vapor exposure and sulfur addition to the culture medium declared no significant effect on the growth of A. flavus mycelium in the direct addition. But sulfur in liquid medium as well as in high concentrations caused mycelial dry weight loss. Importantly, the sublimation of 0, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 25 and 50 gm-3 from the refinery sulfur, prevented completely the growth of germinated spores and mycelial. Significantly, the complete inhibition of spore germination was observed at a concentration level of 2 g m-3 and also sodium metabisulfite prevented the growth of A. flavus at a concentration of 15 g l-1 culture medium. The sulfur usage in culture medium declared no inhibition of A. flavus growth, but at high concentrations in liquid medium, it reduced mycelial dry weight. Therefore, it is found that the sulfur application in any kind to control of psylla would not probably effect significantly on the aflatoxigenic A. flavus.

The production of siderophore and cellulase by Trichoderma species is one of the effective indexs in plant growth, effective control and management of pathogens as well as application in industry. Therefore, primary screening of best isolates is very important based on the defined indicators.

In this study, the optimal conditions for the qualitative and quantitative production of siderophore and cellulase were investigated using test plate method for the initial screening of 27 Trichoderma strains. For measuring cellulase enzymes (Endoglucanase, exoglucanase and beta glucosidase), the reactive dyes phenol red, congo red (0.5, 0.05 and 0.015%) were used at pH levels of 4, 5, 7 and 9 with carbon sources including Avicel, CMC and cellobiose. Quantitative measurement of cellulase was investigated using the dinitrosalicylic acid method. Screening of Trichoderma strains for siderophore production was studied by CAS agar method as mycelial culture and crude extract in a well method.

The results of this research showed phenol red 0.015% under pH5 is the best reagent for detection of cellulase, Because of there is no inhibition on mycelial growth and the purple zone diameter is clear. In quantitative cellulase assay, the highest enzyme specific activity is related to T. harzianum CT-763 with 3 U/mg. T. atroviride CT-482, CT-473 and CT-865 were known as active strains in siderophore production, which were able to produce two types of siderophore, hydroximate and catechol. The results of siderophore production in liquid medium using the well method showed that T. afroharzianum CT-891 has the highest siderophore production by creating a halo zone of 1.2 cm, while T. harzianum CT566 produced the lowest amount of siderophore without creating halo.

Considering the application efficiency using of siderophore and cellulase in sustainable agriculture and importance of the role of Trichoderma species in production these metabolites, the well method for siderophore and dinitrosalicylic acid method for cellulase detection suggested. In this study T. atroviride and T. harzianum species had the highest production in siderophore and cellulase, respectively

Fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum L. is one of the most important destructive flax diseases that markedly decrease the production and yield of this crop. The cultivation of flax cultivars resistant to F. oxysporum is the most effective method for managing this disease. In this study, the changes in content of phenylalanine ammonia lyase, peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase enzymes, total protein, proline and soluble sugars were measured in 12 different genotypes of flax infected to wilt Fusarium and non-infected conditions under greenhouse conditions. The experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design with three replications. 21 days after inoculation of the plant with the pathogen, biochemical components changes were measured by spectrophotometry. Based on the results of ANOVA, the soluble sugars content in infected genotypes was higher compared to control and healthy genotypes. Also, this parameter increased in resistant and highly resistant genotypes of flax, meanwhile this trait decreased in susceptible genotypes in contaminated conditions. The activity of phenylalanine ammonia lyase, peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase enzymes as well as proline content in leaves of resistant and highly resistant genotypes were significantly increased in wilt Fusarium infected treatment. Total protein content in non-infected genotypes of flax was higher than infected genotypes. Therefore, increasing the activity of antioxidant enzymes, proline content and soluble sugars can play a possible role in inducing resistance to Fusarium wilt disease in flax genotypes.

Salinity can prevent the uptake of soil mineral ions due to the negative effect of sodium ions and disturbance of ion balance, but the use of Trichoderma biocompounds improves growth under salinity stress. To investigate the effect of four salinity-resistant Trichoderma strains on growth traits and mineral element uptake of eggplant seedlings under stress conditions, an experiment has been performed in a completely randomized factorial design with three replications in the greenhouse of Vali-e-Asr University of Rafsanjan during 2016-2017. The first factor is salinity in four levels including the control and concentrations of 8, 12, and 16 dS/m and the second factor is Trichoderma as T. aureoviride (T148-2, T189-4) and T. virens (T145, T133-1) as well as the control. The results show that under the influence of salinity, a significant decrease in growth traits takes place. At the highest salinity level, the average dry weight of roots and shoots is 50% and 72%, respectively. For stem diameter and seedling height, a 20% decrease is observed compared to the control. However, inoculation with Trichoderma improves these traits, resulting in a 1.6-fold increase in root dry weight (T142-8), a 2.7-fold increase in shoot dry weight (T133-1), and a 1.3-fold increase in seedling height (T189-4) in comparison to the control. The highest diameter increase could be observed in T142-8 strain by 38%. Using Trichoderma leads to significant changes in sugar, sodium, potassium, and calcium content. The results of this study show that Trichoderma can be a suitable biological agent to increase tolerance at high levels of salinity stress and improve the growth traits of eggplant seedlings.

Crown and root rot is one of the important diseases of citrus trees in Iran. Various methods, including biological control, have been proposed to control this disease. Trichoderma species are widely present in all soils and plant materials. In this study, 27 Trichoderma strains were used for biological control of Phytophthora citrophthora. Measurement of cellulase enzyme and beta 1-3 glucanase produced by Trichoderma spp. was done using the dinitrosalicylic acid method. The results showed that the highest values are related to T. harzianum CT-763 and T. virens CT-9715 strains with 2 µmol/ml enzyme activity. Macroscopic and microscopic examinations of the dualculture of different Trichoderma strains with the pathogen, the inhibitory effect of volatile and non-volatile metabolites on mycelial growth of the pathogen were done. All Trichoderma strains and their volatile and non-volatile compounds inhibited on pathogen mycelia growth. The highest percentage of inhibition dualculture tests was caused by T. virens CT-9715. The highest inhibitory effect was determined for T. afroharzianum CT-891, T. aureoviridis CT-936, T. atroviride CT-865 with 100% and T. afroharzianum CT-55 with 50% in the non-volatile and volatile compounds assay, respectively. In microscopic examination of mycoparasitism effect of Trichoderma spp. and P. citrophthora, it was found that T. harzianum (CT-566, CT-862, CT-634, CT-873), T. afroharzianum CT-55 and T. aureoviridis CT-936, destroyed the mycelium of pathogen by a process such as twisting and lysis. For application of these successful local strains as biopesticide, it is necessary to perform additional studies on their biocontrol effects on Phytophthora in natural conditions.

One of the most important environmental challenges in the Middle East and Iran is the phenomenon of dust Coexistence between plants and mycorrhizal fungi can have positive results on vegetation establishment.The aim of this study was to improve plant development in reducing wind erosion. after sampling of rhizosphere soil of Rhizosphere, Haloxylon, Tamarix and Nitraria seedlings in two levels of inoculation with and without mycorrhizal fungi, three levels without water stress, moderate water stress and severe water stress and three standard soil types, Soil No. 1, EC=0.5 and soil No. 2, EC=6 were conducted as a greenhouse in a factorial design.wind tunnel tests, morphological characterization of plants and mycorrhiza colonization experiments on the roots of plants were studied. Mycorrhiza inoculation significantly increased shoot and root fresh and dry weight, root area, root volume, shoot and root length, and decreased soil loss. The results of comparing the mean of Haloxylon (increase of 18 to 40, decrease of 10%) and Tamarix (increase of 1to3% and increase of 1to3%) and Nitraria (increase of 1 to3% and decrease of 1%) indicate the effect of fungus Mycorrhiza has been based on the vegetative traits of the plant and the amount of soil wasted. e interaction of plant species and water stress in Haloxylon plant also had a reduction of about 35% in vegetative traits relative to normal water stress and 15% relative to moderate water stress .Regarding the interaction of plant species and water stress Tamarix, there was a decrease of about 18 to 35% in vegetative traits compared to normal water stress and 9 to 20% relative to water stress. Due to the interaction of plant species and water stress, Nitraria plant also had a reduction of about 25% in vegetative traits relative to normal water stress and 38% relative to moderate water stress.

Purpose :

A study was carried out on composting pistachio hull aided with chemical fertilizer. Recycling of pistachio wastes is one of the major agricultural way in pistachio producing country.

Method:

 The collected pistachio hull was allowed to decompose either naturally through composting or with the addition of chemical fertilizers. Biological and chemical properties with organic matter were monthly measured in both composting methods. The data was analyzed in a completely randomized design. Mean values were compared using Duncan's multiple range test in SPSS software (p < 0.05).

Results:

 Increasing chemical fertilizers reduced the microbial density and diversity during the composting, the concentration of the elements in both composting methods increased over time. The EC in both methods decreased over time from 6.95 to 6.17 dSm-1 in natural composting and 6.95 to 4.85 dSm-1 in adding of chemical fertilizers. The C: N ratios of the produced compost was found to be lowered in adding of chemical fertilizers during composting compared with those naturally composting treatment.

Conclusion:

 Addition of chemical compounds to the primary wastes could accelerate and improve the decomposition process and lead to faster composting as well as nutritional enrichment and lower C: N ratios, but it reduced microbial density and changed their diversities.

Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) are one of the most essential beneficial soil microorganisms that can form a mutualistic symbiotic relationship with plants. AMF receive carbon from the host plant to complete their life cycle. In return, these fungi have copious roles for the host plants, including plant protection against pathogens, increasing abiotic stresses tolerance (drought and salinity), and enhancing water and mineral nutrient acquisition. Formerly, AMF was identified and classified merely based on morphological features of fungal spores such as mode of formation, wall structure, and subtending hyphal characteristics. Later on, molecular procedures were incorporated for AMF identification. PCR-based techniques led to the direct identification of AMF species that existed in plant roots or the rhizosphere. Several primers have been developed to increase the accuracy of AMF identification. Nowadays, classification systems of AMF are based on both morphological and molecular techniques. This paper aims to review the researches on the identification of AMF in Iran. Identification of AMF has received increasing interest over the past few decades. Authors have used a combination of morphological characteristics and DNA-based techniques to the identification of AMF. So far, more than 115 AMF species belonging to 22 genera have been identified and reported from different regions and plant communities such as croplands, forests, grasslands, etc. Understanding the community composition and diversity of AMF is vital for using them as biofertilizer in agriculture to reduce chemical inputs and increase sustainable crop production

Due to the importance of mycorrhizal fungi and their ability in colonization of plants, the use of some microorganisms and chemical compounds to improve mycorrhizal activity is an important issue. In this study, an experminet  was conducted as a compeletely randomized factorial desin with  three replications at Valiasr University of Rafsanjan.Three fungal species, Funneliformis mosseae(FM), Rhizophagus intraradices(RI) and Rhizophagus irregalaris (RIr) were applied asmycorrhizal inoculant and the effect of some microorganisms including yeast (Issatchenkia orientalis) and bacteria (Pseudomonas fluorescens VUPf5) as well as chemical compounds such as compost tea, azolla extract, bacterial siderophore, humic acid and amino acid complex on fungal activity and physiological parameters of corn plant (SC750 cultivar) was examined. The results showed that all species of mycorrhizal fungi combined with bacterial treatment and chemical compounds had a significant effect on stem diameter and longitudinal growth, leaf area increase, root weight and dry weight and shoot dry weight. Variance analysis of SPAD showed that there was not significant difference between mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal treatments. However, the application of different species of mycorrhizal fungi had a significant effect on the content of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll and carotenoids in compared to the control (without mycorrhizal fungus) treatment. The use of humic acid and compost had the extreme effect on plant growth. Amino acid complex treatment with Rhizophagus intraradices had the greatest effect on chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll content. The treatments of yeast and amino acid complex had the greatest effect on carotenoids, respectively..

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of biochar and mycorrhizal fungi on growth, plant biomass and some nutrients of two parsley cultivar. A factorial experiment based on completely randomized design with three replications was conducted. The first factor was parsley variety at two levels (crispum and neapolitanum). Application of biochar at three levels (0, three and six percent of soil weight) was used as the second factor. While, application of Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in two levels (mycorrhiza and non mycorrhiza) was considered as the third factor. The results showed that the highest fresh and dry weights of aerial parts (210.218 and 64.8783 gr, respectively) was related to crispum cultivar with applications of mycorrhizal and biochar 3%. The highest fresh and dry weights of root (70.74 and 18.68 gr, respectively) and the highest colonization rate (96%) were observated in neapolitanum cultivar using mycorrhizal and biochar 3%. The highest amount of sodium, potassium, nitrogen and copper was obtained by application of biochar 6%. Mycorrhizal treatmeant also increased the concentration of magnesium, iron, copper and calcium in both neapolitanum and crispum cultivars. Finally, the highest amount of phosphorus (8918.678 ppm) was observed in neapolitanum cultivar with application of mycorrhizal and biochar 6%, while the highest concentration of manganese (50.7296 ppm) was obtained in crispum cultivar using mycorrhizal and biochar 6%. In general, in this study, application of biochar led to better colonization of parsley root with mycorrhizal fungus. Therefore, it can be concluded that the combined use of biochar and mycorrhizal fungi provides better conditions for achieving sustainable agricultural goals and increasing the growth of parsley.

Micropropagation is a method for mass and rapid proliferation of plants on tissue culture media. Low survival and poor growth of micropropagated seedling after transplanting is one of the main disadvantages of this technique in many plants. The success of this method can be increased by using biological agents such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. The experiment was conducted to evaluate the efficiency of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi to improve physiological indices and osmotic regulators content of micropropagated pear rootstock (Pyrodwarf) under drought stress. Factorial experiment was performed in a completely randomized design with two factors (two mycorrhizal and three drought stress level). Experiment was conducted in three replications under greenhouse conditions. Drought stress continued for two months. Results of analysis of variance showed that mycorrhizal symbiosis significantly increased physiological parameters and decreased osmotic regulators at all levels of drought stress. Mycorrhizal colonization percentage determined as 84, 81.66 and 72%, in low, medium and severe drought stresses levels, respectively. Mycorrhizal application significantly increased physiological indices such as Fv/Fm, photosynthetic efficiency index, SPAD index, and the content of chlorophyll b, cartenoid and total chlorophyll in mycorrhizal treatments compared to control (no mycorrhizal plants) and decreased proline and soluble sugars content. Overall, the results of this experiment showed that rootstocks obtained from tissue culture treated with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi were more adapted to natural conditions and drought stress.

The present study aimed to investigation of root colonization percent and spore population of Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in soils of 9 regions of Rafsanjan city. Also the effect of climate and some physical and chemical properties of soil including pH, EC, organic carbon, amount of absorbed P and B soil and amount of silt, sand and clay on these two factors were evaluated. Samples were collected from the rhizosphere of different plants and AMF spores were isolated from the soil samples using the wet sieve method. After root staining and spore extraction of spores from soil, root colonization and spore population determined. Az the results all samples have arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis. The average root colonization percent ranged from 17.7% in Western suburb to 83.3 % in Raviz and the average spore population per 10 gr of soil samples ranged from 5.68 in Western suburb to 139.2 in Davaran. There was significant and positive correlation between the spore population and root colonization percent (α= 0.01). There was significant and positive correlation between the percent of sand and organic carbon with spore population and root colonization percent (α= 0.01). correlation of measured indices with pH, EC, P, B, silt and clay showed significant and negative correlation(α= 0.01). furthermore, the results showed that the root colonization percent and spore population in each region is related to the host plant and climate as wel.

The use of nontoxigenic strains of Aspergillus flavus as an effective biological method to reduce aflatoxin is being developed in different countries. Nontoxigenic strains are able to compete with toxigenic strains by substrate occupation, which reduces the toxigenic population and the amount of aflatoxin in the substrate. The aim of study was to investigate the morphological diversity in the nontoxigenic population of A. flavus. To isolate nontoxigenic strains from 225 fruit and pistachio soil samples obtained from different provinces, AFPA culture medium and dilution series method were used. Primary nontoxigenicity screening was performed by ammonia vapor method in coconut agar medium and thin layer chromatography was used for result confirmation. Isolates were identified molecularly using FLAVIQ1/FlaQ2 species-specific primers. In order to identify the macromorphological and micromorphological features of 56 obtained strains, four culture media including CYA (Czapek yeast agar), MEA (malt extract agar), CY20S (Czapek yeast 20% sucrose) and CZ (Czapek) were used. Investigation of macro-micromorphological features, classified A. flavus strains into five groups. Colony growth pattern on CYA25 cultural media has shown good differentiation between isolates. The results showed that there is a great variety among nontoxigenic A. flavus isolates obtained from different agro ecological zones due to the presence of different species in the A. flavus complex.

Introduction:

 Rising global demand for food, along with the limitation of arable land, has posed a significant challenge on agricultural researchers to find solutions to overcome this issue. Given that the development of agricultural lands is not practically possible, most attention should be focused on increasing the production yield per unit area. One of the basic approaches to increase crop yield is the consumption of chemical fertilizers, although their application has detrimental effects on humans, soil and the environment. However, organic fertilizers can be considered as a suitable solution to solve this problem. Organic compounds and biomass are the main features of soil fertility and productivity. Applying organic fertilizers such as living compounds (bacteria, yeast, Azolla) and non-living compounds (compost tea, amino acids, humic acid and fulvic acid) can increase soil organic substances. Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) are considered as beneficial microorganisms promoting plant growth by establishing a symbiotic relationship with plants. The colonization of plant roots by these fungi increases plant resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, enhances the plant growth through increasing elements uptake, the improvement of the water flow of plants, and the protection of the plants against diseases. Due to the importance of some food products, such as maize, investigating various aspects of mycorrhizal fungi application and their effect on these products is essential.

Materials and Methods:

 to investigate the effects of some organic compounds and microorganisms on the colonization of AMF and the concentration of some elements, a factorial experiment in greenhouse conditions was conducted in a completely randomized design at three replications for 3 months. The factors included mychorhizal inoculation consisted of Funneliformis mosseae (FM), Rhizophagus intraradices (RI), Rhizophagus irregalaris (RIr), and organic growth enhancers (Azolla, P. fluorescens VUPf5, amino acid complex, humic acid, yeast, bacterial siderophore and compost tea).

Results and Discussion:

 the results showed that the highest root mycorrhizal colonization percentage by Funneliformis mosseae (FM) was observed in bacterial (93%), humic acid (90%) and Azola (76%) treatments. The use of Azola and humic acid and compost tea showed the highest R. intraradices (Ir) root colonization with 96 and 82%, respectively. The highest effect of the treatments on R. irregalaris (Rir) root colonization was observed regarding Azola (96%) and compost tea (90%), respectively. According to the results, the prominent increase in root colonization by three mycorrhizal species was observed in Azola, humic acid, compost tea and bacterial treatments. In addition, the results showed that some compounds increased the concentration of nutrients in the roots and shoots of the treated plants. According to the results, all mycorrhizal species significantly increased the amount of phosphorus in the shoot under the compost tea treatment. Also, the treatment of amino acid combined with R. irregaluris caused an increase in the concentration of iron, compared to the control. The use of R. intraradices along with amino acid increased manganese concentration in the plant aboveground organs by 2.87 times compared to the control. Simultaneous application of siderophore and RI, FM and Rir increased the zinc concentration by 2.16, 2.55 and 1.81 times compared to the control, respectively. The highest uptake of phosphorus, zinc and manganese was observed by R. intraradices soil inoculation and the maximum iron concentration was obtained in plants inoculated with R. irregaluris. The mean comparison of different treatments revealed no significant differences between non-mycorrhiza and mycorrhiza-treated samples, while in comparison with the control, their differences were substantial. Overall, co-treatment of mycorrhizal fungi and Azolla, bacterial and humic acid caused the most significant increase in the mycorrhizal root colonization and the compost tea, amino acid complex and siderophore treatments had the highest impact on the nutrient content of the plant.

In the present study, all treatments had an additive effect on root colonization. However, Azolla, bacteria, humic acid and tea compost treatments caused the most mycorrhizal colonization. These treatments utilized with mycorrhizal fungus had a favourable effect on the growth factors of corn by increasing the rate of colonization. Also, this study revealed that all three species of mycorrhizal fungi increased the concentration of elements and the effect of these fungi along with compost tea, amino acid complex and bacterial siderophore increased colonization and nutrient content in the shoots compared to the control group.

The use of biochar and mycorrhizal fungi has positive effect on soil fertility, crop production, increasing of carbon sequestration, reduction of greenhouse gas sublimation, improvement of nutrient utilization efficiency, stimulation of soil microorganism growth, production of growth promoting hormones, as well as increasing of plant tolerance to environmental stress. However, their effects depend on soil characteristics, plant species and the type of raw material used in the production of biochar. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of biochar (derived from residues of essential oil extraction of Satureja khuzistanica) and mycorrhizal fungi (Native and non-native) and their interactions on growth, biomass and some morphological and biochemical characteristics of two Parsley (Petroselinum crispum) cultivars in greenhouse conditions.

A factorial experiment based on completely randomized design with three replications was conducted in the greenhouse of Faculty of Agriculture, Lorestan University. The first factor was Parsley cultivars (crispum and neapolitanum). Application of biochar at three levels (0, three and six percent of soil weight) was used as the second factor. While, application of Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in three levels (Control, native mycorrhiza and non-native mycorrhiza) was consider as the third factor. Plant height, plant width, leaf number, leaf length and width, petiole length and diameter, crown diameter, distance between leaflets, fresh and dry weights of shoot and root, root length and volume, electrolyte leakage, relative water content as well as chlorophyll and carotenoid contents and mycorrhizal colonization were measured. The data obtained from the experiment was analyzed using Minitab software. Mean comparison was performed using LSD test method at 0.05.

The Results showed that biochar application up to 3% increased plant height, plant width, leaf length and width, leaf number, petiole diameter, root volume, fresh and dry weight of root and shoot, content of chlorophyll a, b and total chlorophyll, and colonization rates in both parsley cultivars. However, application of higher amount of biochar had no positive effect on these traits. Maximum of plant height (31.49 cm), plant width (47.60 cm), leaf length (18.68 cm), leaf width (19.23 cm) and petiole diameter (0.080 mm) was observed in the treatment of mycorrhizal (non-native) fertilizer which had no significant difference with the native mycorrhizal. However, application of non-native mycorrhizal fertilizer increased growth and biomass of parsley in compare to the sterilized control soil treatment. In comparison between cultivars, Crispum showed higher growth and biomass. In general, the highest shoot dry weight and total chlorophyll b content (62.02 g, 11:40, 18.43 mg / g fresh weight, respectively) belonged to Crispum cultivar under native mycorrhizal with 3% biochar application. The highest fresh and dry weights of root (70.74 and 18.68 gr, respectively) were observed in neapolitanum cultivar using native mycorrhiza and biochar 3%.

In this study, the biochar application up to 3% increased the growth and biomass of parsley cultivars. However, no significant differences were observed between the native and non-native mycorrhizal treatments. It can be concluded that the application of common mycorrhizal fertilizers in non-sterilized soils will not affect the growth and yield of parsley. Therefore, the production of mycorrhizal fertilizers from native mycorrhizal fungi in each region is recommended for effective use. Overall, the crispum cultivar showed higher growth and yield, so its cultivation is recommended.

Root-knot nematode is one of the most important pistachio diseases which which causes huge damage to pistachio trees in recent years. The present study was undertaken to assess the efficacy of arbuscular mycorrhizal species including Funneliformis mosseae, Rhizophagus intraradices, F. caledonius and Tricoderma aureoviride and T. harzianum on growth factors and nutrients uptake in Meliodogyne Javanica inoculated seedling under greenhouse conditions. Overall, mixed inoculations of pistachio seedling with arbuscular mycorrhizal, Tricoderma species and nematorin resulted in the highest amount of shoot fresh and dry weight by 184 and 74.76%, followed by 129.3 and 74 % in mixture including arbuscular mycorrhizal and Trichoderma species, respectively, compared with no-inoculation control seedling. Fresh and dry weight of shoot in inoculations of seedling with mycorrhiza, mycorrhiza-Trichoderma and Trichoderma increased by 129.26, 86.58 and 68.75, 53.12 % compared to no-inoculated seedling, fresh and dry weight of roots in mycorrhiza and mycorrhizal Trichoderma- Trichoderma-nematicide were 153.67, 168.60 and 71.75 and 162.79% higher than those inoculated with M. javanica. The uptake of P, Zn and Cu in inoculated seedling with arbuscular mycorrhizal and Tricoderma species was increased, significantly. Phosphorus and potassium levels in mycorrhiza and mycorrhiza- Trichoderma treatments were increased 101.99% and 103.62%, respectively, in the presence of M. javanica compared to no-inoculated seedling. Based on the improvement of growth parameters, nutrients uptake, biocontrol capability, arbuscular mycorrhizal and Trichoderma species may be useful strategy to reduce the damage of root knot nematode, which required further research.

Increase of phenolic content is one of the defensive barriers against pathogenic disorders and environmental stresses. In this study the effects of fungal species of arbuscular mycorrhizal species Funneliformis mosseae, Rhizophagus intraradices, Funneliformis caledonius and Tricoderma, Tricoderma harzianum Tricoderma aureoviride on induction of phenolic compounds in pistachio plant Badami Riz Zarand at 0, 36, 72, 132 and 288 hours after nematode inoculation was performed in three replications based on completely randomized design. The results showed that the total phenol content in treated plants had a significant increase compared to the control. Pistachio seedling treated by mycorrhizia at 132 hours and Trichoderma after 72 hours showed slowly increase in at 132 hours post-nematode inoculation and Trichoderma slowly after 72 hours of inoculation, there was a slight increase in phenol content in the presence and absence of the nematode, so that in 288 hours had maximum of increase. Also, the growth factors of leaf number in Mycorrhiza-Trichoderma treatment were equal to 18.53 and 33.33%, respectively, causing an increase in leaf number weight in the presence and absence of nematodes. Also, mycorrhiza treatment compared to healthy control is equal to 24.77% and mycorrhiza-Trichoderma-nematode treatment with 69.19% have the highest number. The studied fungi can be suggested for using in biological control of root-knot nematode.

Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF), as the most abundant mutual symbiotic association between fungi and plants in the soil, are of great ecological and economic importance. The present study aimed to identify AMF species associated with different plant roots based on morphological and molecular characteristics of ß-tubulin gene sequences of collected samples in Raviz and Daveran regions of Rafsanjan city.

Samples were collected from the rhizosphere of different plants and AMF spores were isolated from the soil samples using the wet sieve method. The identification was performed based on morphological characteristics of the spores such as the color, shape, surface ornamentation, size, wall structure as well as characterization of the spores in water. The DNA of the fungi was extracted from single spores and partial sequences of ß-tubulin gene were amplified by three nestedPCR using appropriate primers. The PCR products of the selected samples were sent for Sanger sequencing. The phylogenetic relationship of the selected sequences with other available isolates in GenBank was analyzed using the Maximum likelihood method.

Based on morphological characteristics and phylogenetic analysis of the partial sequence of ß-tubulin gene, the following species were detected: Funneliformis mosseae, Funneliformis coronatum, Gigaspora gigantean, Scutellospora calospora, andSeptoglomus constrictum. F. mosseae followed by F. coronatum were recognized as the dominant species in the present study.

The partial sequence of ß-tubulin gene was well separated from the studied orders, families, and genera of arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi. All the identified species in this study were placed in the expected taxonomic level. The results of the molecular analysis confirmed the classification of species based on morphological characterization.

Pistachio is one of the most important export products of the country and root knot nematode is one of the threatening factors in its production. The most prevalent species in pistachio orchards are those of Meloidogyne javanica and M. incognita. Plants have a wide range of defense mechanisms effective against the invasion of various pathogens and pests. These mechanisms include pre-existing physical barriers, chemical barriers, and induced defense responses. Beneficial soil microorganisms such as Trichoderma spp. and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) can protect plants from infection by direct mechanisms such as production of toxins, enzymes, and other metabolites or by inducing systemic resistance. Induce resistance to the root knot nematode occurs following an increased accumulation of different antagonistic compounds such as peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase. Increased levels of these enzymes has been observed in different plants that are responsible for the induced protection against Meloidogyne.

In this study potential of antagonistic fungi, vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza (Funneliformis mosseae, Rhizophagus intraradices, Funneliformis caledonius) and Trichoderma (Tricoderma aureoviride,Tricoderma harzianum) and mixed of both fungi against Meloidogyne javanica under greenhouse conditions was investigated. In order to investigate the effect of antagonistic fungi on the induction of defense enzymes in pistachio seedlings of Badami Riz Zarand cultivar, the study was performed as a factorial experiment based on completely randomized design with twelve treatments in three replications in the greenhouse. Pistachio seedlings were inoculated at the stage of 8-10 leaf with 60 g of mycorrhizal mixture and three months later, these plants were sampled for examination. In order to ensure the purity of the fungi and the colonization of the roots, staining of the plant roots was performed and microscopic examination was performed to observe different organs of the fungus. After confirming the mycorrhiza treatment, Trichoderma treatment was applied. For Trichoderma treatment, 10 g of mixture of isolates T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 per kg of soil was used. Pure nematode populations were prepared from a single egg mass on Early Urbana tomatoes. Pistachioseedlings were inoculated with 5000 second-stage juveniles of nematode 21 days after Trichoderma treatment.Nematode indices including the number of galls, egg masses and second juveniles per gram of root, the number of eggs in each egg mass and reproductive factor after 75 days for each treatment were measured.The second experiment was performed to investigate the effect of biological treatments on nematode indices in a completely randomized design with six treatments and three replications. Defense enzymes level of Peroxidase (POX), Polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) determined at four times of one and a half, three, five and a half and twelve days after nematode inoculation.

Disease indices showed a significant decrease in fungi treatments compared to the nematode control. Trichoderma treatment showed a significant difference in all indicators compared to the other treatments. Reproductive index in Trichoderma treatment and its combination with mycorrhizal treatment decreased by 72 and 33.3 and nematode population decreased by 73.4% and 36.2% compared to the control, respectively. Extracellular hydrolytic enzymes play important role in the infection process of Tichoderma species against plant-parasitic nematodes. In mycorrhiza treatment, although there was no significant difference in gall index and egg mass with the control, but the number of second juveniles and nematode reproductive factor showed a significant decrease compared to the control. This may be due to the small size of the egg mass and the effect on the number of eggs. Previous results on mycorrhizal species of Rizophagus irregularis in tomato plant showed that egg masses and number of eggs in treated roots have a significant reduction. The maximum enzymatic activity for POX, and PPO was obtained in different treatments on the twelfth day. The maximum amount for PAL activity in seedlings treated with mycorrhizal and Tricoderma fungi was observed after five and a half days. The level of different enzymes increases after treatment with mycorrhiza and Trichoderma in plants, each of which plays a role in limiting the development of nematodes.

Due to the high proliferation of nematodes in pistachio orchards and due to the environmental hazards of nematicides, the use of biocontrol agents is recommended. The studied fungal strains in the present study could be used as components in an integrated approach to manage M. incognita on pistachio plants. The use of plant growth promoting fungi such as mycorrhiza and Trichoderma while improving plant growth, can reduce the use of fertilizers and chemical pesticides and are effective for better plant growth and development and disease control. However, further studies on the use of combinations of these fungi with other bacterial antagonists and even animal manures as well as garden studies are necessary.

Biocontrol of toxigenic populations with nontoxigenic strains has long been introduced as an effective method of reducing aflatoxins in crops such as corn, cottonseed, oilseeds, and pistachios. But if these nontoxigenic strains produce cyclopiazonic acid, being a less important fungal secondary metabolite, they may have unwanted negative consequences.

In this study, it has been attempted to investigate the production of cyclopiazonic acid in 58 non-aflatoxigenic strains and one aflatoxigenic strain of Aspergillus flavus obtained from pistachio soil and nuts of orchards in Kerman, Yazd, Khorasan Razavi, Esfahan, Qom, Semnan and Markazi provinces. For evaluating the production of cyclopiazonic acid, the isolates were first cultured in CYA medium, and for each isolate, three inoculations were kept in a dark incubator at 25°C for 14 days. Then, the ability to produce cyclopiazonic acid was assayed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).

The production of cyclopiazone in different isolates was 6.951-357.6 mg/l. The results showed that out of 59 A. flavus isolates, as many as 44 isolates were not able to produce cyclopiazonic acid. Also, the percentage of non-aflatoxinogenic isolates that were not able to produce cyclopiazonic acid has been estimated to be 76%.

The results of this study can be useful in selecting suitable and efficient isolates for biological control of aflatoxin in orchards.

Pistachio soft hull is substances that have a high potential for recycling and entry into production. Compost production is one of the ways to reuse and optimize them. In this study, the pistachio soft hull was collected and air dried, divided into two equal parts (T1 and T2 treatments) and stacked on either side of a chassis. A sample of primary wastes was sent to the laboratory and concentrations of macro- and micro-nutrients, organic matter, EC and pH were measured. Based on the results of previous studies and the deficiency of some elements in the prototype, some chemical compounds were added to one part of the waste (T2). The moisture content of the treatments was monitored regularly and the aeration was performed monthly. Samples were transferred to the laboratory monthly from two treatments for chemical tests and analyzed. Treatments were harvested and dried after the carbon to nitrogen ratio reached the permissible levels. The results of monthly tests were analyzed by a completely randomized design with the Duncan test at 5% level. The results showed that although the concentration of nutrients increased during the composting process, the increase in chemical fertilizers accelerated the decay process and also increased the concentration of nutrients. Elements added from the source of chemical fertilizers to the T2 treatment were significantly higher than the T1 treatment. EC, pH, phenol, and carbon to nitrogen ratios decreased.

Plants that have a symbiotic relationship with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) compared with non-mycorrhizal plants have a higher ability to resist against various biotic and abiotic environmental stresses such as drought, salinity, pests, and plant diseases. This study aim is studying different species of AMFs in Kerman province. The identification of these microorganisms is to provide the basis for further studies on the use of these microorganisms in germination, growth, and proliferation of medicinal plants.

To molecular and morphological identification of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, sampling was done from the rhizosphere of medicinal plants in some areas of Kerman province. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi spores were isolated from the sampled soils by the wet sieve method. The grouping was done based on spore microscopic slides and morphological characteristics such as spore color, shape, surface ornamentation, size, wall structure and spore characteristics in water. DNA was extracted from single spores. A Part of ribosomal DNA was amplified by nested PCR using SSUmaf and LSUmAr primers in the first step, SSUmCf, and LSUmBr in the second step. After horizontal agarose gel electrophoresis and see the related band the PCR product was sent for sequencing. Then sequencing results were analyzed using BLAST, Gene Runner and Clustal Omega Softwares, and the phylogenetic tree was plotted using MEGA 7 software.

According to morphological and molecular studies, Viscospora viscosa, Septoglomus deserticola, Funneliformis caledonium, Funneliformis mosseae, and Diversispora spurca were identified. Finally, the existence and manner of species identity were investigated in the phylogeny tree.

Since the morphological features used in the identification and classification of mycorrhizal fungi are limited, molecular methods can be used for safer classification, and in this way, Recognize differences of Similar species morphologically and similarity of different species in appearance.

One of the major problems with commercial production of micro-propagated plants is low survival and poor growth after transplanting. In order to investigation the effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis on establishment, survival, growth, as well as nutrients absorption on Pyrodwarf micropropagated rootstock in drought stress conditions, a factorial experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with two factors including mycorrhizae in two levels (with and without) and drought stress in three levels (three, five and seven days irrigation intervals) in three replications in greenhouse conditions. The plants harvested two months after drought stress. The results of variance analysis showed that mycorrhizal symbiosis significantly increased vegetative indices at all levels of drought stress. The total leaf area, stem height, total leaf fresh weight and root dry weight of mycorrhizal seedlings were 3.6, 1.3, 3.1 and 1.9 times higher than non-mycorrhizal plants, respectively. The content of P, Mn, Cu, Zn and K and in root and shoot tissues increased significantly in mycorrhizal treatments than control. Generally, the results of this study showed that pear seedlings treated by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi had better acclimatization, growth and more tolerance at normal and drought stress condition.

Among the mycorrhizal fungi, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are the most common symbiotic species with plants. Root colonization by these fungi increases plant resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, enhances growth through increasing elements uptake, improves the water connection of plants, and protects plants against diseases.

In this study, eight plants were selected from Joupar and Mahan regions of Kerman province and were sampled from 0 to 30 cm depth of rhizosphere of each plant, which included thin soils and roots, to calculate the frequency of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in the soil, identify spores, and determine the percentage of root colonization. For staining the roots, Philips and Hayman’s method was used and root colonization percentage was determined. Spore density in soil samples was obtained after the extraction of spores from 10 grams of the soil sample by the wet sieve method and existing spores and also dominant spores in the soil of each plant were determined and then the data were statistically analyzed.

All the examined root samples showed a symbiotic relationship with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. The percentage of colonization in evergreen, oregano, chicory, safflower and castor plants was 100% and in purslane, gall and chamomile were 98%, 95%, and 88%, respectively. The average number of spores per 10 grams soil was 18, 62, 16, 34, 3, 15, 25, and 7 respectively. Based on statistical analysis, it was found that there is a direct relationship between the number of spores and the percentage of mycorrhizal colonization in most plants. Then, the available spores as well as the dominant spores in the soil of each plant were identified.

High spores per 10 grams of soil and the high percentage of mycorrhizal colonization in the study area indicated that such climates are the valuable natural repository for plant species, animals, and microorganisms.