hamid reza fallahi

Growth is a major component of fitness in all organisms an important mediator of competitive interactions in plant communities and a central determinant of yield in crops. Every year about 12 million hectares of productive land has become dry and barren due to human activities and climate. Quinoa has a very high genetic diversity and can be cultivated in a wide range of soils, climates and latitudes. It also is a plant responds to drought stress through escape, tolerance and avoidance of drought and has an extraordinary capacity for cultivation in dry and low-water soils because of its capabilities such as low inherent need for water, the maintenance of leaf surface and the ability to resume the speed of photosynthesis after drought stress.In order to evaluate the trend changes in the height and leaf greenness index of quinoa, four separate experiments were conducted in factorial layout based on randomized complete block design with three replications in two regions (Birjand and Sarbisheh) and two planting dates (March and July) in 2018-2019. The experimental factors included five moisture levels (25, 50, 75, 100 and 125% of crop water requirement) and three quinoa cultivars (Titicaca, Giza1 and Redcarina). Separate analysis of variance was also performed for each sampling time. At the end of the growing season, the plant height and the length of the main and sub inflorescences were analyzed as a compound analysis that the effects of time (planting date) and place were considered fixe.The results of variance analysis in four separate experiments showed that in both regions, in March cultivation, Redcarina and in August cultivation, Giza1 reached the maximum value of leaf greenness index later than other cultivars and decreased with a lower slope and they actually had a higher leaf greenness index. Also, the highest plant height in March and August cultivation was observed in Redcarina and Giza1 cultivars respectively. At the beginning of the growing season, the highest value of leaf greenness index was observed in the level of 125% of water requirement, which was not significantly different from other moisture levels. With the passage of time, the value of leaf greenness index increased in lower moisture levels so that its value was higher at 25% water requirement level and had a significant difference with other levels. The highest plant height was at the level of 125% water requirement no significant difference was observed between the levels of 125% and 100% plant's water requirement in both places and time studied. Based on the results of composite analysis at the end of the growing season, the highest and lowest plant height was observed in Redcarina and Titicaca cultivars respectively and the cultivar had no significant effect on the length of main and sub inflorescences. Planting date had no significant effect on plant height. however, the maximum main inflorescence length and the lowest sub inflorescence length were obtained from August cultivation. The maximum plant height and main inflorescence length (86.34 and 19.04 cm respectively) were observed in Sarbisheh, and the maximum sub inflorescence length (14.17 cm) was observed in Birjand. By reducing irrigation from the level of 125% to the levels of 100, 75, 50 and 25% of water requirement, the plant height decreased by 6.50, 15.11, 26.88 and 41.13%, respectively, the main inflorescence length decreased by 7.96, 16.52, 20.90 and 32.83%, respectively and the sub inflorescence length decreased by 9.29, 19.38, 40.76 and 47.51% respectively.In general, Redcarina at March cultivation date, and Giza1 at July cultivation date, had the best height plant, leave greenness index and length main and sub inflorescences compared to other cultivars. Applying.....

Environmental disorders that significantly disturb the growth and yield of plants are considered as stress conditions and cause disturbances in biological. Drought stress is one of these environmental conditions which has been increased as a result of climate change and has been a negative effect on the yield of crops in the world. Every year about 12 million hectares of productive land has become dry and barren due to human activities and climate. More than 6000 varieties of quinoa are cultivated by farmers in the worlds. Quinoa is a plant responds to drought stress through escape, tolerance and avoidance of drought and has an extraordinary capacity for cultivation in dry and low-water soils because of its capabilities such as low inherent need for water, the maintenance of leaf surface and the ability to resume the speed of photosynthesis after drought stress. Titicaca, Redcarina and Giza-1 are three quinoa cultivars. Titicaca and Redcarina, were registered on December 14, 2009 and January 31, 2005, respectively, and are native to Denmark and Netherlands, respectively, and Giza1 is native to Egypt. Increasing yield in water deficit conditions requires the identification of genotypes resistant to drought stress. Different quantitative indicators have been provided to evaluate the reaction of genotypes in environmental conditions and also to determine their tolerance and sensitivity.

In order to evaluate the indicators of drought stress tolerance of quinoa cultivars, a factorial experiment with four stress levels (100, 75, 50 and 25% of water requirement) and three varieties of quinoa (Titicaca, Giza-1 and Redcarina) were conducted with three replications in two locations (Birjand and Sarbisheh region) and two planting dates, spring (March) and summer (July) in 2018 and 2019. Evaluation of cultivars in terms of drought tolerance was done using stress sensitivity indices, such as tolerance (TOL), mean productivity (MP), stress tolerance index (STI), geometric mean productivity (GMP) and harmonic mean (HM). Decomposition into main components on yield under stress and non-stress conditions and drought stress tolerance indices were displayed in the form of a biplot diagram using STATISTICA software.

The results showed that in both regions the highest amount of STI, MP, GMP and HM indices, were recorded for Redcarina variety in all three levels of drought stress at spring cultivation, but they were belonged to Giza-1 at summer cultivation. Due to the dispersion of the results, SSI and TOL indices had less diagnostic power to evaluate the drought tolerance of quinoa cultivars. Principal components analysis showed that Redcarina cultivar was collinear with yield vector in stress condition and MP, GMP, STI and HM indicators and was located in yield potential and tension tolerant area in bi-plot diagram in two regions (Birjand and Sarbisheh) at spring cultivation. In summer cultivation, Giza-1 variety was located at sensitive to stress area and yield potential in bi-plot diagram and was collinear with grain yield vectors in non-stress conditions and MP, GMP, STI and HM indices in two regions. This showed the more yield of this variety in non-stress condition. In most of the planting dates and places were studied, Titicaca cultivar had collinearity with SSI vector or located at the closest position to this vector, which indicated that this cultivar was sensitive to stress.

In general, in July, Giza-1 variety and in March Redcarina variety were the most tolerance varieties and Titicaca was most sensitive cultivar to drought stress.
Keywords

Environmental factors, especially temperature, are very important in the proper occurrence of saffron flower initiation stage during summer. In areas affected by heat stress, any factor that reduces the stress intensity seems to be beneficial in improving saffron reproductive growth. Corm storage under desired environmental condition is a potential strategy, when saffron is grown as an annual crop. In perennial saffron plantation, where the corms spend the flowering stage in the soil, other solutions should be considered for the proper occurrence of the flowering stage. One of these solutions is to use plant residues in the field surface to reduce the soil temperature. The presence of plant residues causes shading on the soil surface, increases the amount of sunlight reflection, reduces evaporation from the soil, regulates the moisture content of the soil, and reduces the temperature at the depth of the corm placement. Another possible solution to adjust the soil temperature during the flower initiation phase of the corm is to carry out summer irrigation, but there is not enough certainty about its usefulness. Therefore, the aim of the current experiment was to investigate the effect of storage conditions of corms, as well as the effect of summer irrigation and the application of plant residue mulch on saffron flowering.

To investigate the effect of corm storage conditions on saffron reproductive growth an experiment was carried out as complete randomized block design with seven treatments and three replicates during 2019 growing season, in Qaen, Iran. Experimental treatments were three types of corm storage inside the soil [corm planting in 5th June (A) with natural soil temperature as control, A + summer irrigation in 5th August and A + mulch application obtained from wheat residues at the rate of 8 ton ha-1)] and three types of corm storage outside the soil [Corm storage at room (ambient temperature) for three months started from 5th June + corm planting in 5th September (B), Corm storage in constant temperature (25 oC and relative humidity of ~40 %) in incubator for three months + B, three months corm storage at variable temperature in incubator (one month in 20, 25 and 20 oC) + B and corm storage in room (up to 5th August) and incubator (up to 5th September) + B.
 

Results showed that summer irrigation increased the number, length and weight of cataphylls compered to control. Corm storage outside the soil (room or incubator) reduced the weight and length of cataphylls. Control and summer irrigation treatments had no significant different in terms of flower number, flowering rate and flower yield, but were superior to other treatments in terms of all the mentioned traits, especially compared with the room storage treatment. The highest values of mean flower weight (0.37 g), flower length (7.6 cm) and stigma length (2.83 cm) were obtained in mulch application treatment. Mulch application failed to improve flower and stigma yields, despite decreasing the soil temperature during the flower initiation stage. The highest values of stigma yield were gained at control, summer irrigation and mulch application (8.07, 7.28 and 6.40 kg ha-1, respectively), which were significantly more than those obtained at room storage (3.24 kg ha-1), storage in incubator with variable temperature (3.68 kg ha-1), storage in room and incubator (3.89 kg ha-1) and storage in incubator with constant temperature (4.28 kg ha-1).
 

Overall, the passage of saffron flower initiation stage inside the soil significantly improved the flowering of the plant compared to the passage of this period outside the soil under room or incubator conditions.

Drought is one of the most important non-living stresses that has an adverse effect on crop production and their quality and leads to osmotic, ionic, and nutritional limitations as well as growth delay, metabolic disorders and oxidative stress in plants. Iran has a dry and semi-arid climate and the occurrence of drought stress during the growth period of plants is inevitable. Presently, the production of legumes in the country is mostly under rainfed conditions and drought stress is one of the main factors reducing the yield of legumes. Mung bean is a small grain of valuable legume. Evaluation of the performance of different cultivars is considered a starting point in identifying drought-resistant cultivars. Cycocel is one of the most important growth retarders for tampering with growth and performance. Therefore, the present study was conducted to investigate the effect of foliar application of cycocel on quantitative traits of mung bean (Vigna radiata) genotypes under water deficit conditions.

In order to investigate the effect of foliar application with cycocel and water requirements on quantitative traits of mung bean (Vigna radiata) genotypes, experiental desing of split-split plot based on a randomized complete block design with three replications in research farm of the Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. Experimental factors included 3 levels of drought (non-stress, mild stress, and severe stress), 3 levels of cycocel foliar spraying (0, 400, and 800 mg/L), and 2 levels of mung bean cultivars (Hendi landrace and Zarbakhsh). Statistical analysis was performed using SAS 9.4 and comparing the means was based on the LSD method at a 5% probability level. 

The experimental results showed that the effect of drought stress, cycocel, genotype, and the interaction of drought stress and cycocel as well as drought stress and genotype on the number of pods per plant were significant. The results showed that drought stress reduced the number of pods in the plant and cycocel increased it. The number of pods in the plant of the Hendi landrace genotype decreased more than that of the Zarbakhsh genotype due to drought stress. Also, drought stress, cycocel, genotype, and the interaction of drought stress and cycocel as well as drought stress and genotype on the number of seeds in the pod, were significant. The results showed that cycocel increased the number of seeds per pod, while drought stress decreased the number of pods per plant. It was also found that at all levels of drought stress, the Zarbakhsh genotype had more seeds in pods than the Hendi landrace genotype. Drought stress, cycocel, genotype, and the interaction of drought stress and cycocel as well as drought stress and genotype had a significant effect on the 1000-seed weight. The results showed that the 1000-seed weight increased due to the application of cycocel, while drought stress decreased this trait. In addition, it was observed that the 1000-seed weight of the Hendi landrace genotype decreased more than the Zarbakhsh genotype due to drought stress. Drought stress, cycocel, genotype, and interaction between drought stress and cycocel had a significant effect on grain yield. The results showed that the grain yield in the Zarbakhsh genotype was significantly higher than in the Hendi landrace genotype. It was also observed that drought stress decreased and the application of cycocel increased grain yield. Drought stress, cycocel, and genotype had a significant effect on biological performance. Drought stress caused a significant decrease in biological yield. The use of cycocel increased the biological performance and increasing the concentration of this substance increased the biological performance. The results of variance analysis of data showed that the effect of drought stress, cycocel, genotype, and the interaction of drought stress and cycocel, drought stress and genotype as well as cycocel and genotype on harvest index were significant. In addition, it was observed that the harvest index of the Hendi landrace genotype decreased more than the Zarbakhsh genotype due to drought stress.

According to the results of this study in the presence of drought stress, it showed a decrease in yield and its components. Among the studied mung bean cultivars, the Zarbakhsh cultivar showed superiority in tolerance to water shortage conditions compared to other cultivars. The use of cycocel reduced the negative effects of drought stress on the plant. It appeared that the use of cycocel under drought stress conditions improved the plant better plants performance.

Recognizing the potential role of seaweed in improving saffron yield and the utilization of micronutrient elements like Ca, Mg, Fe, and Mn to enhance stigma yield, an experiment was conducted. The study investigated the impact of foliar spraying of seaweed extract and selected nutritional elements on saffron's quantitative and qualitative traits of saffron.This research was conducted, as factorial based on a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with four replications during 2021-2022 in Neishabur, Iran. The first factor consisted of seaweed extract (0 and 2 L.ha-1) and the second factor consisted of foliar application of nutrients including no foliar application (as control), and the defender of some elements including iron (1.5 L.ha-1 containing Fe, N, and amino acids), zinc, boron (1 L.ha-1 containing B and amino acids), manganese (1.5 L.ha-1 containing Mn, Zn and S), magnesium and calcium (2 L.ha-1 containing Ca and N). The use of all nutrients compared to the control (no-nutrients) and the use of seaweed extract compared to no-seaweed application caused an increase in flower and stigma yields. Based on the interaction effects of the experimental factors, the highest number of flowers (68.8 No.m-2) was obtained in the combined application of manganese and seaweed extract, the highest flower yield (33.5 g.m-2) was gained with the combined application of seaweed and boron, and the highest dry stigma yield (0.48 g.m-2) was obtained from the simultaneous application of magnesium and seaweed extract, which were 63.8, 16.7 and 17.0%, more than the control treatment (no-seaweed & No-nutrients), respectively. Without nutrient application, the utilization of seaweed extract resulted in a notable rise in the Picrocrocin content of the stigma by 15.9%, Crocin by 9.5%, and Safranal by 10.6% compared to the absence of seaweed application.Combined consumption of calcium with seaweed increased the content of Picrocrocin and Crocin, while simultaneous application of other nutrients with seaweed did not improve these indices. The highest and the lowest content of Safranal (37.7 and 32.35 absorption at 330 nm) were obtained from magnesium + no-seaweed and control (no-seaweed & no-nutrients) treatments, respectively. Overall, although all of the studied elements combined with seaweed extract improved stigma yield in order to increase stigma yield, application of Mg in combination to seaweed recommended and to enhance saffron quality using seaweed suggested.

The storage conditions of saffron mother corms during the summer dormancy period, including natural and pseudo-dormancy stages, can probably affect the vegetative growth and the production of replacement corms (RC), which has not received enough attention in previous scientific studies. This experiment was carried out as a complete randomized block design with seven treatments and three replicates during the 2019 growing season in Qaen, Iran. Experimental treatments were three types of corm storage inside the soil [corm planting on 5th June (A) with natural soil temperature as control, A + summer irrigation on 5th August, and A + mulch application obtained from wheat residues at the rate of 8 ton.ha-1)] and four types of corm storage outside the soil [corm storage at room (ambient temperature) for three months started from 5th June + corm planting on 5th September (B), corm storage in constant temperature (25 oC and relative humidity of ~40 %) in incubator for three months + B, three months corm storage at variable temperature in incubator (one month in 20, 25 and 20 oC) + B and corm storage in room temperature (up to 5th August) and incubator (up to 5th September) + B. The studied traits were the length, number, and weight of leaves, the number and weight of the total RC, the weight of the main RC, the average weight of RCs, and the number and yield of RCs in different weight groups. The results showed that mulch application caused the highest length and number of leaves (35 cm and 9 No per plant, respectively). Incubation of corms at variable temperatures led to a significant increase in the total weight of RC. In contrast,  incubation at constant temperature had most significant effect on the number of RC (2022 corms per m2). The highest and the lowest mean weights of RC were obtained in the mulch application (7.23 g) and incubation at constant temperature (2.22 g), respectively. Plant residue treatment (mulch) decreased the number of small RC (less than 6 g) and increased the number of RC in the weight groups of 9-12 and 12-15 g. Incubation of mother corms at variable temperatures led to an increase in the number and yield of RC weighing more than 15 g. Overall, the treatments of plant residue consumption and storage of mother corms at incubator with variable temperatures, in which 66% and 61% of the RC yield was in groups weighing more than 9 g, respectively, were the best experimental treatments in terms of improving the growth of RC.

 The aim of this narrative literature review was clinical indications as well as common complications of the most common treatment options for oral rehabilitation of the upper jaw. The paper also introduced a novel decision-making tool for guiding the selection of the most appropriate treatment for oral rehabilitation based on patients’ residual bone height, width, and quality.

 This study is a review article based on PubMed and Scopus that was done by reviewing articles from 2000 to 2022. Treatment choices for edentulous maxillae with the insufficient bone for implant placement comprise two broad classifications: bone defect compensation by bone augmentation techniques and modified implant designs for specific situations to utilize the remaining bone. The following factors have to be taken into consideration: the residual bony anatomy, remaining bone volume and quality, skeletal maxillomandibular relationship, scientific evidence, the experience of the clinicians, and, the patients’ increasing demands and expectations.

 Grafting techniques are often demanding for both patients and surgeons. Likewise, they are associated with a prolonged treatment time, increased financial cost, and higher complication risks, especially in medically compromised patients. Several non-grafting alternative options have been reported such as zygomatic implants (ZIs), short implants, tilted implants, and the like.

 Oral rehabilitation in the upper jaw should follow a comprehensive assessment and examination of the patient’s quality and dimensions of residual bone. The clinical decision between grafting versus non-grafting options is associated with several factors.

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is the most expensive agricultural product and one of the most valuable medicinal and spice plants that have many uses in the food and medicine industries. Iran is the largest producer and exporter of saffron in the world, and about 90% of the world's annual saffron production is produced in Iran, mainly in Razavi Khorasan and South Khorasan provinces. A balanced supply of nutrients is one of the main important factors in the sustainable saffron production, especially in arid and semi-arid areas. Potassium and sulfur, as two essential and widely used elements, play a significant role in the synthesis of proteins, activating enzymes, transferring sugar, increasing carbon dioxide absorption and photosynthesis. Seaweed extract is also one of the compounds that stimulate plant growth and the quality of products. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of potassium sulfate and seaweed extract on the stigma quality and the content of leaf photosynthetic pigments.

This experiment was carried out in the growing seasons of 2018 and 2019, as factorial based on a randomized complete block design with three replications, in Sarayan, Iran. Experimental factors were four levels of potassium sulfate (0, 100, 200, and 300 kg ha-1) and three levels of Acadian seaweed (0, 1, and 2 per thousand). Before conducting the experiment, soil sampling was done from a depth of 0-30 cm (Table 1). Plots dimension was 2×1 m, with for planting rows in each. The distance between the plots was 0.5 m and between the blocks was 1.5 m. Before planting, the corms (8-10 g) were disinfection with benomyl fungicide. Potassium sulfate applied simultaneously with corms planting. For application of seaweed extract, after preparing the solutions with desired concentrations, foliar spraying was done using a sprayer three times in 20th February and 5th and 20th March, 2018. The flowers in the first growing season (autumn of 2017), were not harvested, because the treatments were not yet fully applied. Simultaneously with the beginning of flowering, in the second flowering season (in late November 2018), the flowers of each plot were collected daily. The stigmas were dried under laboratory condition at the shade for a week. Then, the qualitative parameters of stigma (anthocyanin, antioxidant, phenol, crocin, picrocrocin and safranal) were measured. In addition, during vegetative growth, the content of photosynthetic pigments (carotenoids, chlorophylls a, b and total) of leaves were determined. Statistical analysis of data was done using SAS 9.4 software. Means were compared using a protected LSD test at the 5% level of probability.

The interaction effect of experimental factors was significant on the content of picrocrocin, safranal and antioxidant of stigma as well as the amount of chlorophyll and carotenoid in the leaves. The highest amounts of picrocrocin, safranal and antioxidant activity were obtained in the combined application of 300 kg ha-1 potassium sulfate + foliar spraying of seaweed extract with a concentration of 2 per thousand, which were respectively, 32.8, 23.9 and 21.1% more than the control treatment (no use of potassium sulfate and seaweed extract). The highest values of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll and carotenoids (0.17, 0.037, 1.99 and 1.01 mg g-1 FW, respectively) were gained with the combined application potassium sulfate (100 to 300 kg ha-1) plus seaweed extract (1-2 per thousand), which were 54.4, 60.8, 131.3 and 68.3% higher than the control, respectively. The simple effect of experimental factors was significant on crocin and anthocyanin content of stigma. Increasing the application rate of potassium sulfate from 0 to 300 kg ha-1, improved the amount of crocin by three times and the amount of anthocyanin by 8.9%. In addition, the amount of crocin and anthocyanin in the condition of seaweed extract application (concentration of 2 parts per thousand) was 166.7 and 12.7% higher than the control (no-seaweed application).

Based on the results of this research, the combined application of potassium sulfate and seaweed extract is recommended to improve the biochemical properties and bioactive compounds of saffron.

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is one of the most expensive and unique spices in the world and is probably the result of the mutation of the wild plant Crocus cartwrightiamus and belongs to the family of lilies. Today, the issue of organic agriculture is discussed, in which, in addition to the quantity of production, special attention is paid to quality, stability, and sustainability in production. Therefore, organic fertilizers can be a good substitute for these materials in biological agriculture. Seaweed extract is one of the major renewable sources of seas in the world, it contains elements of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and some micronutrients (iron, copper, zinc, cobalt, molybdenum, manganese), growth hormones (auxin and cytokinin), vitamins and amino acids and it stimulates the growth and development and increases the performance of plants. Potassium also plays key roles in many physiological and biochemical processes such as photosynthesis, protein production, sugar production and transport, activation of more than 60 types of enzymes, regulation of osmotic and ionic potential, regulation of opening and closing of stomata, and formation of phloem vessels. To investigate the effect of potassium sulfate and seaweed, an experiment was performed on vegetative growth, yield, and corm saffron. 

This experiment was carried out in the 2018 and 2019 years as factorial and the form of a randomized complete block design with three replications in Sarayan City of South Khorasan province. Experimental factors included four levels of potassium sulfate (0, 100, 200, and 300 kg ha-1) and three levels of seaweed (0, 1, and 2 per thousand). Before conducting the test and preparation operations, random soil sampling was done from a depth of 0-30 cm for the soil analysis test (Table 1). Plots were created with a length of two meters and a width of one meter. The distance between the plots was 50 cm, and the distance between the blocks was 1.5 meters, including the streams used to irrigate the plots. On the specified dates, the corms were removed from the mother farm, and after preparation and disinfection with benomyl fungicide with a concentration of two per thousand, they were planted in the field on the same day according to the plan (only corms with weight eight to 10 grams were used for planting). To apply foliar treatment with seaweed fertilizer, after preparing the solutions with desired concentrations, foliar spraying was done using a backpack sprayer and after calibrating it. Simultaneously with the beginning of flowering (late November 2018), the flowers of each plot were collected daily from the entire surface of the plots. Statistical analysis of data was done using SAS 9.4 software. A comparison of average data was also made using a protected LSD test at a five percent probability level. 

The results showed a significant effect of the treatments used on the studied traits, The highest number of flowers per square meter, yield of fresh flowers, fresh and dry stigma yield, and mean number of buds with flowering potential in each corm in the second year and the highest leaf length, weight fresh and dry leaves, total number and weight of corms, mean weight of each corm and mean weight of the original girl corms were obtained in both years at 300 kg ha-1 treatment of potassium sulfate. In addition, the results show a significant effect of seaweed (two per thousand) on the number of flowers per square meter, yield of fresh flowers, fresh and dry stigma yield in the second year, and leaf length, fresh and dry leaf weight, total weight of corms, mean weight of each corm and mean weight of the original girl corms in both years. Total weight of corms and weight of coriander more than 12 g in the first year and number of flowers per square meter, yield of fresh flowers, yield of fresh stigmas in the second year, and fresh leaf weight in both years in 300 kg h-1 treatment of potassium sulfate and the concentration of two per thousand seaweed had the highest increase. Also, the highest average weight of each corm in both years was obtained in the treatment of 200 kg ha-1 of potassium sulfate and a concentration of two per thousand seaweeds. 

According to the results of this study, the use of potassium sulfate fertilizer (300 kg h-1) and seaweed (two per thousand) alone can play an effective role in increasing vegetative growth, yield, and corm saffron, but their simultaneous use will be more effective.

Increasing the yield of agricultural products per unit area is very important for preparing the food needed by the growing population of the country. One of the solutions is to add fertilizers in different forms and compositions to the soil to increase crop yield and strengthen soil fertility. Far away has been common all over the world.

In order to investigate the effect of different levels of camel manure and manganese sulfate on growth and yield and yield components of Setaria italic, a factorial experiment in the form of a randomized complete block design with three replications in 2009-2010 in Abuzar well cultivated lands. Khosf city was implemented. Experimental treatments included: camel manure at three levels (0, 10 and 20 t / ha) and manganese sulfate at four levels (0, 30, 60 and 90 kg/ha).

The results of statistical analysis of the data showed that different levels of manure and manganese sulfate and the interaction between them had a significant effect on biological yield, number of grains per panicle and grain yield. So that the highest values ​​of the above indices were observed in the treatment of manure 20 tons per hectare and 90 kg per hectare of manganese sulfate. The highest and lowest number of panicles were obtained in the treatment of 20 tons of camel manure and the application of 30 kg/ha of manganese sulfate and the control treatment without the use of camel manganese and manganese sulfate. The length of the panicle was also affected by the main effects of manure and manganese sulfate. So that the maximum panicle length was obtained in the treatment of 20 tons per hectare of manure and the treatment of 90 kg per hectare of manganese sulfate. The effect of manure levels on number of tillers per plant, number of spikes per plant and number of plants per square meter was significant, but other effects had no significant effect on these traits and the highest number of tillers per plant, number of spikes per plant and number of plants In the treatment of 20 tons per hectare of camel manure were obtained per square meter. The main effects of different levels of manure and manganese sulfate at the level of one percent probability had a significant effect on 1000-grain weight and millet harvest index, but the interaction of these factors did not have a significant effect on these traits. The highest 1000-seed weight was observed in the treatment of 20 tons per hectare of camel manure and the treatment of 90 kg per hectare of manganese sulfate. Also, the highest harvest index was related to the treatment of 20 tons per hectare of camel manure and also the highest harvest index was obtained from the consumption of 60 kg per hectare of manganese sulfate.

Finally, it can be concluded that the best treatments in this experiment were the use of 20 tons per hectare of camel manure and 90 kg per hectare of manganese sulfate. In fact, manure improves plant growth by gradually providing elements and using micronutrients. The use of manure is one of the appropriate solutions to achieve ecological agriculture that can increase agricultural production and due to the fact that most of the soils of South Khorasan province are calcareous and manganese deficient, the use of this element can be Help to remove this limitation and increase plant yield.

Crop production in dry areas is strongly affected by water shortage. In these regions, the application of water-absorbent materials is a useful strategy for sustainable crop production. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effect of two water preservative materials (WPM) on the growth and yield of sesame under two irrigation regimes. The experiment was carried out as factorial based on a randomized complete block design with three replications, during 2018 and 2019. Experimental factors were water availability levels (100 and 50% of sesame water requirement as normal and deficit irrigation, respectively) and application of WPM, including control (no-WPM), 125 kg ha-1</sup> super absorbent polymer (SAP), 6200 kg ha-1</sup> Zeolite (Z1), 11200 kg ha-1</sup> Zeolite (Z2), SAP+Z1 and SAP+Z2. At the end of both growing seasons, vegetative growth parameters, yield components, seed and biological yields, water use efficiency and seed quality indices (oil and protein contents) were measured. The highest and the lowest amounts of vegetative parameters were obtained at SAP+Z2 under normal irrigation and control under deficit irrigation, respectively. Yield component indices were improved significantly by all WPM especially SAP+Z2 at both levels of irrigation. The highest seed yield was recorded by SAP+Z2 under normal irrigation (1304 and 1481 kg ha-1</sup>, for the first and the second growing seasons, respectively). The highest oil yield (749 and 843 kg ha-1</sup>, for the first and the second growing seasons, respectively) was gained at SAP+Z2 under normal irrigation, while its lowest value (125 and 136 kg ha-1</sup>, for the first and the second growing seasons, respectively) was obtained with no- WPM under deficit irrigation. Similar trend was observed for protein yield. Overall, despite yield reduction, deficit irrigation improved water use efficiency. Moreover, WPMs were useful to improve growth and yield of sesame under both irrigation regimes.

The common method of traditional saffron production is its production under open-field conditions. Recently, due to climate change outcomes attention has been paid to its production under controlled conditions (hydroponic and aeroponics). In the last two decades, decrease in precipitation, increase in temperature during flower initiation phase and consequently the abortion of some initiated flowers, delay in supplying the proper temperature for flower emergence in autumn, poor soils quality which renders difficulty the flower emergence; have led to the decline in the flowering capacity of saffron in several countries under natural conditions, progressively. Accordingly, its hydroponic production could represent a possible solution for reducing the above-mentioned problems, due to the lack of soil, the proper temperature levels, and providing appropriate water availability in this production system (Behdani & Fallahi, 2015; Aghhavani-Shajari et al., 2021). In addition, under open-field condition, the flowering period of saffron lasts for about three weeks, and during this period of time, high labor is required. To solve this problem, it is possible to extend the corms pseudo-dormancy stage and the flowering phase by using the hydroponic systems, with a controlled environment. In saffron hydroponic planting systems, the amount of water consumption is reduced considerably which is important in dry regions. In addition, flower harvesting in hydroponic system is faster, cheaper, and cleaner, because environmental factors such as wind, dust, and frost, have no effect on flowers (Behdani & Fallahi, 2015; Aghhavani-Shajari et al., 2021; Fallahi et al., 2021a). However, it is necessary to compare the two systems of open-field and hydroponics in terms of the amount of flowering and the quality of the produced stigma.   To compare the effect of saffron corm planting systems (including 1- under controlled environment (hydroponic) and, 2- open-field environment), on flowering indices and stigma color parameters (Hunter lab color scale), an experiment was conducted in the research field and horticultural physiology laboratory of Faculty of Agriculture, University of Birjand, during 2019, with four replications. In open-field treatment, the corms were planted in soil at a depth of 10 cm and density of 100 corms per m2, while in the hydroponic system corms were planted in trays (30×40 cm, 100 corms per tray) and were transferred to incubator (temperature: 15 oC, relative humidity: 75%, 8 hours light, 16 hours darkness). In this experiment, the traits of flower number, flowering rate, flower yield, mean flower weight, flower length, style length, stigma length, dry yield of stigma and petal, anther yield, and Hunter's color indices including brightness (L), redness (a) and yellowness (b) of saffron stigma were measured. The two planting systems were compared using t-student test, by SAS, 9.2.  The results of analysis of variance showed that there was a significant different between two experimental treatments, in terms of the most studied traits. Based on the mean comparison results, there was no difference between production systems for the number and yield of flowers. However, the maximum flowering rate (5.82 flowers day-1) and the mean flower weight (0.34 g) were obtained in the hydroponics system. Also, planting corms under controlled conditions resulted in the maximum length of flower, style and stigma (7.38, 4.40 and 2.49 cm, respectively). In addition, the highest dry yield of saffron stigma was obtained in the controlled environment, so that this treatment was superior by almost 14% compared to the open-field environment. This finding is similar to those reported previously by Maggio et al., (2006), Aghhavani-Shajar et al., (2021) and Khan et al., (2022). The comparison of the color parameters between the two studied treatments showed that the maximum brightness (L) and redness (a) of the stigma (57.52 and 15.41, respectively) were observed in the hydroponic system. In a similar study, it was reported that stigmas obtained from soil less production system had higher L and crocin values, while safranal content was significantly lower in comparison to traditional production system (open-field), which means that stigma produced under open-field was some darker in appearance but had a higher aroma (Aghhavani-shajari et al., 2021).  In general, corm planting in a controlled environment increased stigma yield and improved partially stigma colorimetric parameters.

Abiotic environmental stresses such as drought and salinity are important factors in reducing crop yield in many parts of the world (Muscolo et al., 2016). Water scarcity is the most important factor in reducing the production of crops in arid areas. Therefore, it is necessary to pay attention to the sustainable use of water resources, especially in arid and semi-arid regions (Dabhi et al., 2013; Samadzadeh et al., 2020). Introducing new drought-tolerant crops is the main strategy for sustainable crop production in arid regions (Samadzadeh et al., 2020). Besides, deficit irrigation and foliar application of osmolyte compounds such as glycine betaine can be considered to reduce the effect of drought stress on plant growth and yield (Fallahi et al., 2015; Tian et al., 2017).

In this experiment, the effects of water availability and foliar application of glycine betaine (GB) were studied on the growth and yield of quinoa. The experiment was carried out as factorial based on a complete randomized block design with three replicates in Sarayan, south Khorasan province, Iran. Experimental factors were (1) irrigation management regimes (irrigation after 70, 140, and 210 mm pan evaporation) and (2) GB foliar application (0 zero or distilled water and 150 mg. l-1).

There were no significant differences between irrigation levels in terms of many vegetative and reproductive parameters such as plant height, plant dry weight, number of panicles per plant, panicle length, and its dry weight. An increase in water stress severity caused a reduction in biological yield and 1000-grain weight, but seed yield did not decrease. GB application increased the values of plant dry weight, biological yield, chlorophyll index (SPAD), and the number of panicles per plant, while reduced reducing seed yield. Interaction results of experimental factors revealed that the highest biological yield (2533.3 kg ha-1) was obtained by GB and irrigation after 70 mm pan evaporation, while the lowest value (1433.3 kg ha-1) was gained by the no-GB and 210 mm pan evaporation. The highest seed yield values were obtained by 70 and 210 mm pan evaporation (250.7 and 245.4 kg ha-1, respectively) combined with the no-GB application. In general, due to the scarcity of water resources in arid areas, quinoa irrigation after 210 mm pan evaporation can be recommended.

Quinoa had an acceptable resistance to drought stress. Seed yield in this experiment was much lower than the plant's genetic potential, which could be due to improper planting date and density. Therefore, research on other quinoa cultivars, other planting dates, and foliar application of glycine-betaine at other concentrations and times can complement the results of the present experiment.

This descriptive research was conducted as interviews using 125 questionnaires among the saffron farmers of Torbat-Heydariyeh, Iran, during 2020-2021. The aim of this study was to compare the most important agronomic operations related to saffron cultivation among three groups of farmers (ordinary, skilled and leading farmers), and to compare the methods used by the farmers with the recommendations of saffron researchers. The classification of farmers into the three mentioned groups was based on the stigma yield in relation to the field age. Before the research, the validity of the questionnaire was confirmed and its reliability was also determined using the test-retest method. The results showed that against 15% of leading farmers, none of the ordinary and skilled farmers had agricultural education. The average education of ordinary, skilled and leading farmers were 7.1, 7.5 and 10.9 years, respectively. Corm planting date of the highest number of ordinary and skilled farmers (46.2% and 35.7%, respectively) was in September, while for the leading farmers (37.5%) was in June. The average amounts of corm application by ordinary, skilled and leading farmers was 8.9, 8.9 and 10.5 ton ha-1, respectively, and the average amount recommended by researchers was 10.4 ton ha-1. All the saffron researchers recommended the corm row planting method, which is accordance with the 30, 43.1 and 44.4% procedures of ordinary, skilled and leading farmers, respectively. The minimum corm weight recommended by researchers was 8 g, which is applied by 18.7% of ordinary farmers, 25% of skilled farmers and 100% of leading farmers. Hand weeding was the most common method of weeds control among all farmers. Contrary to the recommendation of most researchers to remain saffron leaves as mulch, the leaves are mainly used as animal feed. The appropriate field age according to researcher’s recommendation was 5-6 years, while most of the farmers use the field for 7-8 years after each planting time. In general, the low level of knowledge, mass planting method (several corms in each planting point), planting of small mother corms, inappropriate planting date and long-term exploitation of the fields were the most important cases of improper field management, especially by ordinary farmers.

This research was conducted using questionnaires and the analysis of soil samples (the content of organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) obtained from saffron fields of Torbat-Heydariyeh, Iran, during 2020-2021. In this research, saffron irrigation and nutrition management methods among three farmer groups (progressive farmers, skilled farmers and ordinary farmers) were investigated and compared with the recommendations of saffron researchers. The classification of farmers in the mentioned three classes was based on the stigma yield in relation to the field age. The results showed that most of the progressive and skilled farmers used the combined nutrition management method (organic fertilizer + chemical fertilizer with frequency of about 65%), while the single application of chemical fertilizer was the most common method among ordinary farmers (47.5%). The mean amount of organic manure application for ordinary, skilled and progressive farmers was 5.0, 6.3 and 10.7 ton ha-1year-1, respectively (less than the amount of 19.2 tons recommended by researchers) and the mean amount of nitrogen application was 49.5, 56.5 and 87 kg ha-1 (compared with 93.3 kg recommended by researchers). The application of phosphorus and particularly potassium was not a common practice among all three groups’ farmers. The average content of organic matter in the fields was 0.68%, nitrogen 0.041%, phosphorus 16.1ppm and potassium 292 ppm, which indicates the poverty of soils in terms of organic matter and to some extent nitrogen. The foliar application of nutrients for the fields of ordinary, skilled and progressive farmers was 0.23, 0.65 and 1.00 times per year, respectively, and the average irrigation times was 3.2, 3.6, and 4.6 times per year, respectively, which is less than the recommended values by experts (2.55 and 5.8 times per year, respectively). Summer irrigation (44.4% of farmers) and sprinkle irrigation method (26.8% of farmers) were more common among progressive farmers. In general, the poverty of organic matter and lack of nitrogen in the soil, low foliar application of nutrients and lack of use of modern irrigation methods were among the most important reasons for the high gap yield of saffron fields.

Many of the saffron corms that are planted in the fields do not have the desired weight and have very low potential for flowering in the field conditions. It is hypothesized that due to the elimination of physical resistance of soil and appropriate control of environmental factors in hydroponic cultivation, it is possible to obtain more flowers from small corms in a controlled environment (Behdani & Fallahi, 2015). In some previous studies (Molina et al., 2005; Mollafilabi, 2014; Aghhavani-Shajari et al., 2021) saffron flowering capacity under controlled environment has been evaluated, but using large mother corms. The main goal of this research was to investigate the possibility of producing flowers from very small saffron mother corms in a controlled environment.
 
In this study, the effect of mother corm weight (2-4, 4-6, 6-8 and 8-10 g) on saffron flowering characteristics was investigated under controlled environment, in a completely randomized design with four replications, in horticulture laboratory, University of Birjand, Iran. Flower initiation stage was passed in the soil (in field), but the flower emergence stage took place under controlled conditions (Temperature: 15±1 °C, relative humidity: 75% and light frequency: 8 hours of light and 16 hours of darkness) (Mollafilabi, 2014; Aghhavani-Shajari et al., 2021), with a planting density of 500 corms per m-2. Some properties of used water in hydroponic production system has been provided in Table 1. The studied traits were number of flowers, flower yield, mean flower weight, flower length, stigma and style length, as well as dry weights of stigma, style and petals. Data analysis was done using SAS ver.9.2. Means were compared by FLSD at 5% level of probability.    
 
The results showed that the number of flowers produced in the weight groups of 2-4, 4-6, 6-8 and 8-10 g, were 0, 56.2, 193.7 and 425 No m-2, respectively (Fig 1), which indicates the production of at least one flower per corm is 0, 11.2, 38.7 and 85% of the corms in the mentioned weight groups of corms, respectively. This can probably indicate that regardless of the cultivation environment (field or hydroponic), very small corms are not able to produce flower or their flowering capacity is very limited (Behdani & Fallahi, 2015; Fallahi et al., 2018). Flower yield in the weight groups of 2-4, 4-6, 6-8 and 8-10 g were 0, 24, 96.6 and 198 g m2, respectively (Fig. 3), and dry pistil yield (style & stigma) were 0, 0.25, 0.98 and 2.13 g m-2, respectively (Fig. 7). Under field conditions and planting the corm in the soil at a depth of about 20 cm, usually the mother corms weighing 4-6 g rarely have the ability to flower (Behdani & Fallahi, 2015). The results of this experiment showed that planting these corms in hydroponic environment makes at least 11% of them produce flowers. It seems that if both stages of saffron flowering (flower initiation and flower emergence) are spent in a controlled environment, a higher percentage of small corms are able to produce flowers. The results of this research, compared to the field experiments that have been done on saffron before (such as Fallahi et al., 2018), showed that the cultivation of saffron in a controlled environment can lead to the flowering of a higher percentage of corms, and this advantage increases significantly with the increase in the mother corm weight.

Amino acids are organic fertilizers. Adding these organic fertilizers to the soil improves the condition of microorganisms in the soil, which their activity facilitates the absorption of some nutrients and ultimately increases the growth and performance of the plant. To investigate the effect of amino acid and mother corm weight on qualitative parameters in petals and stigmas of saffron (Crocus sativus L.), an experiment was conducted at the Research Field of College of Agricultural, University of Birjand, in 2017. 

The experimental factors included amino acid (0, 2, and 4 L.ha-1) and corm weight [0.1-4 (small), 4.1-8 (medium), and 8.1-12 g (large-sized)] which were tested in an RCBD with three replications. After the land preparation operations including initial plowing, disk, and land leveling, plots of 2 × 2 meters were created. Irrigation was done by siphoning. The saffron corms were planted in grooves with a depth of 20 cm, the distance between the rows was 20 cm, and the distance between the corms was 10 cm. The amino acid was consumed before planting by submerging the corms and with the first irrigation when the plots were flooded uniformly. Harvesting of saffron flowers was done daily for about three weeks in the first hours of the morning, taking into account the marginal effect of the remaining surface of the plots. After weighing the flower yield in each plot, the different parts of the flower (petal and stigma) were dried in an electric oven at 45 °C for 24 hours and then used to measure the quality indicators. 

The use of amino acids had a significant effect on the carotenoid content and anthocyanin of petals and stigma crocin. The highest amounts of carotenoid content (0.95 mg.g-1 FW), anthocyanin (26.28 mg.100g-1 DW), and crocin (270.4% Absorbance of 1% aqueous saffron extract at 440 nm) were obtained when amino acid was used at the rate of 4 L.ha-1. However, no significant difference was found between the two levels of amino acid in terms of all the mentioned parameters. The lowest values of carotenoid (0.71 mg.g-1FW) anthocyanin (24.23 mg.100g-1DW), and crocin (230.5) were obtained from the control treatment. Mother corm weight also exerted a significant effect on picrocrocin content. The lowest content of picrocrocin was obtained in the amount of 100.7 (Absorbance of 1% aqueous saffron extract at 257 nm) of small-sized mother corms (0.1- 0.4 g) and the highest of 108.5 of large-sized mother corms (8.1-12 g). The interaction of these two factors (amino acid and mother corm weight) had also a significant effect on the safranal of stigma, and antioxidant activity of saffron petals. The highest content of safranal (36.82, Absorbance of 1% aqueous saffron extract at 330 nm), and antioxidant (31.26%) were obtained from corm 8.1-12 g and 2 or 4 L.ha-1 of amino acid. 

The results of this research showed that the planting of larger mother corms and the use of amino acids can be useful in improving the quality characteristics of petals and effective substances of saffron stigma. Since no statistically significant difference was observed between the consumption levels of two and four liters per hectare of amino acids in most of the studied traits, to reduce production costs, two liters per hectare of organic input of amino acids can be suggested. This amount can vary depending on the characteristics of the soil in each region. The results of this study indicated the beneficial effects of amino acid on improving biochemical traits and effective ingredients which is appropriate for the organic production of saffron.

Millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) is a ,warm-season grass with a growing season of 60–100 days. It is a highly nutritious cereal grain used for human consumption, birdseed, and/or ethanol production. Millet ranks sixth among the world’s most important cereal grains, sustaining more than one-third of the world’s population. Millets are generally among the most suitable crops for sustainable agriculture and food security on marginal lands with low fertility. Millet crops are grown on marginal lands and under low-input agricultural conditions, situations in which major cereal crops often produce low yields. Foliar application of Zn brings the greatest benefit in comparison with addition to soil where they become less available. Generally, Micronutrients are essential for plant growth and play an important role in balanced crop nutrition. Micronutrients are as important to plant nutrition as primary and secondary nutrients, though plants do not require as much of them. 

To study the effect of cow manure (CM: 0, 10, 20, and 30 ton ha-1) and zinc sulfate (ZS: 0, 60, and 90 kg ha-1) application on common millet (Panicum miliaceaum L.) growth and yield, a factorial experiment based on a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications was conducted in the research field of University of Birjand, Iran, in 2018 growing season. In addition, a chemical fertilizer (NPK) treatment was considered in each block, and its effect was compared with 12 other combination treatments based on a randomized complete block design.  The studied traits were plant height, number of tillers per plant, 1000-grain weight, grain yield, biological yield, harvest index, and seed zinc content. The software SAS (V9.1) and Excel were used to analyze the data and draw the figures. Means were compared using the FLSD test at a 5% probability level. 

Analysis of variance results showed that the simple effects of both experimental factors were significant on all studied traits, but none of the interaction effects were significant. Application of 60 kg ha-1 of ZS improved all growth and yield parameters of millet, while the highest zinc content in the seed was obtained by applying 90 kg ha-1. The highest seed and biological yields (2227 and 7940 kg ha-1, respectively) were obtained by 60 kg ha-1 of ZS application, which was 36 and 6.6% higher than the control treatment (no-fertilization), respectively. All studied traits showed an increasing trend with increasing the amount of CM consumption, so that their highest values ​​were obtained when 30 tons ha-1 of CM was applied. Seed yield (2564 kg ha-1) at the highest CM level was 138% more than the control treatment and ultimately led to a 14.4% increase in the harvest index. 

Millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) is a cereal plant cultivated for its grain, mostly in Asia and North America. It is a warm-season grass with a short growing season and low moisture requirement that is capable of producing food or feed where other grain crops would fail. Chemical fertilizer treatment (NPK) also improved all traits related to plant growth and yield compared to control as well as some other fertilization treatments. Modifying the physical properties of the soil and the availability of nutrients for millet plants can be a major reason for the increased yield and growth of the plant. Also, the results showed that consumption of zinc sulfate at 60 kg.ha-1 increased yield and yield components of common millet, but consumption of 90 kg.ha-1 of this fertilizer reduced the studied traits. In addition, the results of this experiment showed a significant difference between four levels of manure so that the highest grain yield of studied millet was obtained from 30 tons per hectare of manure. According to the test results, it can be stated that the application of zinc sulfate at a rate of 60 kg per hectare increased the yield and yield components of millet and therefore is introduced as the desired amount of fertilizer to achieve ideal yield.

For investigation the effect of algae extracts and mother corm weights on flower yield and growth characteristics of saffron (Crocus sativus L.), an experiment was conducted at Research Farm of College of Agricultural, University of Birjand, during 2017. The factors included three seaweed extracts (0, 15 and 30 L ha-1) and three corm weights [0.1- 4 (small), 4.1 – 8 (medium) and 8.1 - 12g (large-sized)] which were tested in a RCBD with three replications. Application of algae extract had a significant effect on flower yield, stigma yield, leaf weight and chlorophyll a content. The highest flower yield (1.29 g.m-2), dry stigma yield (0.059 g.m-2), leaf dry weight (0.092 g per plant) and chlorophyll a (11.1 mg g-1 FW) were obtained at 30 L ha-1 of algae extract, while the lowest amounts of flower yield (1.061 g m-2), stigmas yield (0.052 g m-2), leaves weight (0.076 g per plant) and chlorophyll a (0.98 g-1 FW) were gained in the control treatment. However, no significant difference was found between the levels 15 and 30 L ha-1 of algae extract. Corm weight also significantly influenced all studied traits. The highest number of flowers (4.7 per m-2), stigma length (33.6 mm), number of leaves (9.3 per plant) and leaf length (33.6 cm) were found in large corms, but the smallest of them were obtained from small ones. Based on the results of the interaction effects of experimental factors, the highest chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll (1.79 and 2.98 mg g-1 FW, respectively) were obtained from 30 L ha-1 of algae extract and large corms. Overall, the use of organic algae extract (30 L ha-1) and planting of larger mother corms significantly improved the growth and stigma yield of saffron.

Intercropping is one of the main strategies to obtain more stability in agro-ecosystems. The possibility of yield improvement in intercropping systems depends on various factors such as plant combination, cultivar type, plant density, planting pattern, and contribution of each species. Introducing new crops or forgotten plants to agro-ecosystems are other methods for sustainable crop production. Quinoa as a potential new crop to be introduced to Iran’s farming systems, is well-adapted to different environmental conditions. This plant has high nutritional values and produces acceptable yield to areas affected by environmental stresses like drought and salinity stresses. Millet, as a forgotten crop in Iran’s agro-ecosystems, is a drought-tolerant grain, with appropriate growth and yield in arid and semi-arid regions. This C4 plant has vertical leaf distribution, rapid and short growth period which make it tolerant to adverse environmental conditions compared to other cereals. The aim of this study was to evaluate the possibility of quinoa and millet intercropping under arid and semi-arid climate of Birjand, Iran.

A factorial experiment based on a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications was conducted in research field of University of Birjand, Iran, in 2018. The experimental factors were planting density at three levels (20, 40, and 60 plants m-2 for both quinoa and millet) and planting ratio at five levels (pure stand of millet (100 %), three rows of millet and one row of quinoa (75%-25%), the equal ratio of millet and quinoa (50%-50%), one row of millet and three rows of quinoa (25%-75%) and monoculture of quinoa (100%). Experimental plots area was 24 m2 (6 m×4 m), with eight planting rows per each. The distances between planting rows in all treatments were 50 cm, while the distances along the single rows were 10, 5, and 3.3 cm for 20, 40, and 60 planting densities, respectively. The grain and biological yields of both plants were determined, finally, various indices including land equivalent ratio (LER), relative yield (RY), competitive ratio index and aggressively index were calculated. Data analyses were done using SAS 9.2 and means were compared by FLSD test at 5% probability level.

The simple and interaction effects of planting density and ratio had a significant effect on grain and biological yield of quinoa and grain yield of millet (P < 0.01). In addition, planting ratio had a significant effect on the biological yield of millet (P < 0.01). Based on data obtained from monoculture system, the optimum plant density to obtain the highest grain yield of millet (4100 kg.ha-1) and quinoa (2340 kg.ha-1), were 60 and 40 plants per m2, respectively. Considering the different ratios of planting, the participation and positive effect of both millet and quinoa plants in an increasing the land equality ratio has been equal. By increasing the density, the advantage of mixed cultivation has been reduced. The best intercropping systems in terms of LER (1.32) were the density of 40 plants per m2 (for both crops), and planting ratio of 25% millet and 75% quinoa, which had 26.98% actual grain yield incensement. In addition, the results of interaction effect showed that this treatment increased the biological yield of quinoa (6935 kg ha-1) by 9.26%, based on anticipated yield. In this density, it seems that the result of optimal use of existing inputs and reduction of internal and external competition in order to achieve maximum yield has been achieved. The results of the relative yield indicated that the millet is better utilized from environmental resources and conditions due to its predominance and competitiveness. In general, the results of evaluating mixed culture indicators based on the principles of assistance and competition were complementary and confirming each other.

The results showed that millet and quinoa had significant effects on each other when intercropped at different planting densities and ratios due to difference of morphological and physiological characteristics. So according to the goals of intercropping recommended the intercropping systems of millet and quinoa for Birjand region.

One of the main challenges of saffron production under controlled environments (CE) is that when flowering ends, there is no specific plan for corm proliferation. It seems that transplanting can provide economic justification for saffron production in CE, by providing the possibility of replacement corms production. This study aimed to evaluate the possibility and effectiveness of transplanting of those corms that previously flowered in controlled condition. Research

To compare the vegetative growth of saffron between two planting methods including direct planting (DP) and transplanting (TP) an experiment was conducted. In the TP method, corms that were flowered under CE were transplanted to four plots beside the plots of DP. At the end of the growing season, leaf and replacement corms (RC) criteria were measured in both planting methods.

Leaf length and weight in DP were 19.5 and 85.1 % more than TP, respectively. Mean RC weight (4.01 vs. 2.35 g), the weight of main RC (14.22 vs. 9.56 g), and number of buds with flowering potential (1.87 vs. 1.28 No. per corm), in DP was more than TP. The number of RC (524 vs. 612 corms per m2) was higher in TP, while RC yield (2093 vs. 1432 g m2) was more in DP method. The percentage of large RC (> 9g) in DP and TP was 19.8 and 6.5 %, respectively. Also, 68 and 32 % of RC yields were belonged to large corms, in DP and TP methods, respectively. Limitations: This study was one of the first studies on saffron transplanting, and the methodologies should be improved in future studies to gain more favorable results.

It was concluded that transplanting of those corms which were flowered under CE is possible, and at least one-third of the RC yield was at the desired weight.

Saffron planting in a soilless system is considered as a potential method to increase the weight of replacement corms. In this environment, it is possible to obtain replacement corms with the suitable weight from no-flowering small mother corms as well as from corms that have produced flowers in a controlled environment, by improving the physical properties of the planting bed and proper nutrition. In this regard, in a pot research, the effect of mother corm weight (2-4, 4-6, 6-8 and 8-10 g) and superabsorbent application (0 and 4.5 g per pot) was studied on saffron vegetative growth. For this aim, a factorial experiment based on RCBD was carried out at University of Birjand. Transplanting was done in perlite substrate and all pots were kept at open door conditions. The aim of superabsorbent application was to increase the nutrients and water holding capacities in perlite planting bed. The simple and interaction effects of experimental factors were significant (P≤0.01) on most of the traits associated with saffron vegetative growth, such as the number and weight of replacement corms, the weight of the main replacement corm, the number of contractile roots and leaf growth. The growth of leaves and replacement corms improved by increase in mother corms weight. Application of superabsorbent had no positive effect on saffron vegetative growth parameters. The highest values of number of replacement corms and weight of main replacement corm were obtained by planting the large mother corms (5.6 corm per plant and 0.34 g, respectively) and no-application of superabsorbent (3.45 corm and 0.27 g, respectively). The production of contractile roots (about 0.5 roots per replacement corm), early drying of the aerial parts (in mid-March) and no full allocation of mother corm reservoirs to plant vegetative growth, were some of the observations in this experiment. The ...

Many activities during production, processing, trade and consumption of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) in Iran, are based on indigenous knowledge. Most share of saffron production in the country is obtained from small fields with family cooperation and using local environmental friendly inputs and technologies. Accordingly, a cosidarable part of saffron produced in Iran is close to the principles of organic farming, but in terms of rules and standards related to this production system, it is considered only as a quasi-organic product. Organic farming is a comprehensive production system that focuses on the quantitative and qualitative aspects of agricultural product during the production cycle (from farm to fork), as well as issues such as justice, social relations, soil health and the rights of all macro and mico organisms. Based on this definition and considering the principles and methods which are used for saffron production in Iranian agroecosystems, it is possible to create a targeted procrdure for its organic production, by perparation a standard. The preparation of this standard, while increasing farmers' incomes, will lead to maintaining and increasing Iran's share of the global market of this valuable medicinal plant. In this article, for all stages of saffron production cycle, using the results of scientific researches on saffron, as well as international, regional and national standards related to organic production, a set of general principles, suggestions (recommendations), requirements and notes are provided. The recommendations are mainly suitable for increasing the quantitative yield, while higher quality of saffron can be achieved by observing the proposed requirements. The guidelines proposed in this paper, besides improving the quantity and quality of the product, will also ensure the other objectives and rules related to organic farming. In the current proposed program, issues related to agronomy (corm production and selection, land selection and preparation, planting, soil nutrition, irrigation, control of biotic stresses, etc.), breeding, harvesting and post-harvest (flowers carrying and storage; separation, drying, grading, packing, labeling and storage of stigma) as well as processing and legal issues have been considered.

Algae are usually aquatic photosynthetic organisms that sequester CO2 in their biomass. They are rich in organic matter and nutrients, and thereby can be used in agriculture as an organic fertilizer. Their application will lead to the production of healthy and qualitative foods. To the best of our knowledge, so far the effect of application of marine algae has not been evaluated on saffron qualitative parameters. Therefore, the aim of present study was to investigate the effect of algae in different levels of mother corm weight on qualitative indices of petals and stigmas in saffron.

To investigate the effect of growth promoting fertilizer containing seaweed extract and mother corm weight on qualitative parameters in petals and stigmas of saffron (Crocus sativus L.), an experiment was conducted at Research Field of College of Agriculture at University of Birjand in 2017. The experimental factors included seaweed extract (0, 15 and 30 l ha-1) and corm weight [0.1-4 (small), 4.1-8 (medium) and 8.1-12g (large-sized)], which were tested in a RCBD with three replications.
 Results

The use of algae extract had a significant effect on the petal yield, carotenoid content and antioxidant activity of petals (antioxidant and anthocyanin content) and quality of stigma (picrocrocin, safranal and crocin content). The highest amounts of dry petal yield (0.027 g plant-1), carotenoid content (1.83 mg g-1 FW), anthocyanin (24.49 mg 100g-1 DW), antioxidant (29.80%), safranal (42.43), crocin (198.78) and picrocrocin (74.57) were obtained when seaweed extract was used at the rate of 30 l ha-1. However, no significant difference was found between the two levels of algae extract in terms of all mentioned parameters. The lowest values of petal yield (0.023 g plant-1), carotenoid (1.04 mg g-1 FW), anthocyanin (22.29 mg .100 g DW), antioxidant (25.54%), safranal (40.61 λ), crocin (176.64 λ ), and picrocrocin (72.60 λ ) were obtained from control treatment. Mother corm weight also exerted a significant effect on antioxidant activity, petals anthocyanin content and safranal content in stigma and the highest of them were gained when large-sized mother corms were planted. The interaction effect of experimental factors was not significant on measured parameters.

Overall, the results of this study indicated the beneficial effects of seaweed extract on improving biochemical traits and effective ingredients, which is appropriate for organic production of saffron. The positive role of algae on plants is related to providing micro- and macro-nutrient as well as production of biologically active biotical substances against plant-infecting pathogens. In addition, they have a significant role in improving soil physical and chemical properties, which lead to better growth and development of the plants. Better quality of saffron produced from larger mother corms may also be related to more nutrient reservoir in such corms.

In order to investigate the effect of soil amendments, zeolite and superabsorbent polymer, on the quantity and quality of sesame yield under drought stress, a factorial experiment was performed in randomized complete block design with three replications, at Research Field of College of Agriculture, University of Birjand, in 2017-2018. Treatments included irrigation at two levels of 50% and 100% water requirement and amendment materials at 6 levels of Z0, Z1, Z2, Z3, Z4 and Z5. (Z0= Control, Z1=adsorbent polymer (125 kg / ha), Z2 = 11.2 ton/ hect of zeolite and Z3 =6.2 ton/hect of zeolite, Z4= zeolite 11.2 ton / hect of zeolite + 125 kg / hect of adsorbent polymer, Z5 =6.2 ton/ hect of zeolite + 125 kg /hect/ of adsorbent polymer) In this study, 1000-grain weight, percentage of crude grain oil, crude protein of grain, plant height, grain yield, harvest index, and water use efficiency were investigated. The results showed that 1000-grain weight, oil percentage, grain protein, plant height, and sesame grain yield were affected by different levels of irrigation and amendments at 1% probability level. Also, harvest index and water use efficiency were affected by different levels of amendments at 1% probability level. Oil percentage, grain yield and harvest index were affected by interaction effects of irrigation levels and amendments at 1% probability level. The highest grain weight, percentage of crude grain oil, crude protein of grain, plant height, grain yield, harvest index, and water use efficiency were observed in Z4 treatment. The results showed that the change in irrigation level from 100% to 50% significantly reduced yield. The highest amount of 1000-grain weight in different levels of amendments was 4.12 g in Z4 and the lowest was 2.89 g. in Z0 treatments Also, the highest amount of crude grain oil in irrigation and different levels of amendments was 56.8% and 40.5%, respectively. The highest and the lowest amount of crude protein in response to different levels of amendments were 15.7% and 13.1%, respectively. The results showed that drought stress had a negative effect on plant growth, but the use of zeolite and superabsorbent polymer partially offset this effect.