فهرست مطالب mohammadreza safari motlagh

 Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolum L.) is one of the most important cut flowers in the world, which currently ranks second in the world after rose in terms of economy and cultivation. Stem end blockage and water stress are two problems in decreasing the vase life of chrysanthemum cut flowers. Cut flowers undergo physiological and biochemical alterations which often lead to an early senescence. Steps to delay the senescence process rely on consideration of many aspects of handling process particularly the preservative solution that will influence the quality and longevity of the flowers. Many flowers are harvested before they are fully developed, to ensure a long postharvest life and to minimize mechanical damages which may occur during handling. Many researches have been performed to prolong the vase life of chrysanthemum cut flowers with different treatments like essential oils, organic acids and nanoparticles. Essential oils are aromatic oily liquids obtained from some aromatic plant materials. In vase solution, microorganisms cause stem obstruction and accelerate the aging of petals. Microorganisms and their toxic products restrict water uptake by blocking the end of the stem. Water balance, which is an important factor in maintaining the quality and longevity of cut flowers and the inability to uptake water are the main causes of senescence. The presence of disinfectants in the vase solution prevents the growth of microorganisms, protects the vessels against disintegration, and ultimately increases the vase life. Most of nanoparticles have antibacterial effects and their application in vase solution hinders microorganism growth and vascular blockage. Nanoparticles have high area-to-volume ratio, high efficiency, and low toxicity. Some nanoparticles penetrate into the cells of bacteria, disrupt their respiration chain, and cause disorder in their cell division, thereby killing them. They also inhibit the accumulation of bacteria in vase solution and stem end of cut flowers. Various studies have reported the positive impact of nanoparticles on decreasing microbial load, reducing transpiration from leaf surface, and preserving water uptake. Studies on postharvest longevity of chrysanthemum cut flowers using these compounds is low. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of orange spring essential oil, fulvic acid and cupper nanoparticles on vase life and some physiological parameters of chrysanthemum cut flowers.

The experiment was performed based on randomized completely design with three replicates in order to investigate the effect of different levels of fulvic acid (50, 100 and 150 mg l–1), orange spring essential oil (10, 30 and 50%) and copper nanoparticles (5, 10 and 20 mg l–1) in comparison to control (distilled water + 3% sucrose + 30 mg l–1 8-hydroxyquinoline sulphate) on postharvest parameters of chrysanthemum cut flowers. Measured parameters included vase life, solution uptake, vase solution bacterial population, stem end bacterial population, decreasing the brix degree, decreasing fresh weight, dry matter, total chlorophyll content, carotenoid content, protein content, and peroxidase and superoxide dismutase activity. Data were analyzed by SPSS statistical software package and means were compared with the LSD test at the probably level of 95%. 

According to the obtained results, the effect of treatments on improving the quality characteristics of chrysanthemum cut flowers after harvest was significant. Results showed that the high vase life (16.33-17.00 days) was obtained with all three copper nanoparticles concentrations. The vase life of chrysanthemum cut flowers was extended to 17 days by the addition of 20 mg l–1 copper nanoparticles in preservative solution in compared to control with 14 days’ vase life. Least solution bacteria colonies was obtained through the use of 5 mg l–1 copper nanoparticle. On the other hand, least stem end bacteria colonies was obtained using 10 and 30% orange spring essential oil. Solution uptake in these treatments was high, too. The effects of different treatments on some other physiological traits and antioxidant enzymes activity were measured. Many studies have been carried out on the effect of essences (herbal extracts) as antimicrobial agents on prolonging the vase life of cut flowers. In most of these studies, these essences could prolong postharvest life. Essences have been studied with the intension of incorporating them into integrated pest management to avoid or reduce the use of synthetic bactericides and fungicides. They also have antioxidant properties. Application of herbal extracts improved water absorption in rose cut flowers by preventing the vessel obstruction. The above results are similar to the results of this study. In most cases, when the cut flowers were treated with nanoparticles, they exhibited longer vase life, higher water uptake, and lower stem-end bacteria than the control flowers.

Olive (Olea europaea) is a tree species whose seedling grows slowly and the propagation by seed is time consuming and increases the probability of genetic alterations. The most appropriate method to propagate olive is the use of shoot cutting as asexual propagation; however, semi-hardwood olive cutting is hard-rooting. The purpose of the current research was to facilitate rooting on shoot cutting of olive cv. Mari using the concentrations of 2, 3, and 4 g l−1 of indolebutyric acid (IBA) and naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA), singularly and in combination with each other. Used cultivation bed was sand. The research was done as a factorial based on a randomized complete block design with three replications. Rooting percentage, root number, root length, and root fresh and dry weights were measured. Based on the results of this experiment the highest percentage of rooting (83.30%), maximum root number (17.09), longest root (22.67 cm), and dry (2.30 g) weight were obtained in cuttings treated with 3 g l−1 NAA together with 3 g l−1 IBA. The highest fresh weight (4.83 g) was obtained in cuttings treated with 4 g l−1 NAA together with 3 g l−1 IBA. The lowest percentage of rooting, maximum root number, shortest root, and lowest fresh and dry weights were obtained in control.

Alstroemeria (Alstroemeria sp.) is a permanent herbaceous plant species. Fast yellowing of Alstroemeria (Alstroemeria sp.) leaves after harvest and before petal shedding is the main factor limiting their vase life. This research investigated the effect of thyme essential oil (0, 50, 100, and 200 mg/L) and ethanol (0, 10, 20, and 40 mg/L) on retarding the senescence of cut alstroemeria flowers in a factorial experiment. Various quantitative and qualitative traits particularly vase life, flower opening index, water uptake, fresh weight loss, dry weight percentage, and vase solution and stem-end bacteria population were measured. Thyme essential oil at a concentration of 200 mg/L without ethanol application was most influential on vase life, reduction of bacteria population, and water uptake and exhibited almost acceptable dry weight and flower opening rate. Overall, it is concluded that the suitable application of thyme and ethanol at proper rates is effective in extending the vase life of alstroemeria.

Strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa L. Duch.) from the family Rosaceae is a hybrid species belongs to Fragaria that is cultivating in broad surface all over the world for the use of its fruit. The use of organic fertilizers and soilless ture beds instead of inorganic fertilizers and soil culture has been recommended for increasing the yield of the plants especially agronomic and horticultural species. In the present investigation, four types of cultivation beds; peat + perlite + sand (b1), cocopeat + perlite + sand (b2), cocopeat + perlite + sand + composted azolla (b3), perlite + sand + composted azolla (b4) and spraying by concentrations of 0, 0.5 and 1.5 mg l–1 humic acid were evaluated on function of Fragaria. Results showed that the interaction of humic acid and cultivation bed was significant on most traits. Concentration of 1.5 mg l–1 humic acid and b4 cultivation bed had the maximum impact on changing the most measured traits especially increase of fruit function.

Staphylococcus aureus is one of the pathogenic bacteria in humans that causes a wide range of diseases. Biofilm formation protects S. aureus against adverse environmental conditions and the host immune system. The genes that encode the most important biofilm constituents belong to the ica operon, one of the most important of which is the icaA gene. Rifampin is a broad-spectrum antibiotic, and garlic has beneficial antimicrobial effects due to its active ingredient allicin. In the present study, the antimicrobial effect of garlic extract at the phenotypic and molecular level and its effect on icaA biofilm gene expression and its comparison with rifampin were investigated.

A standard and two pathogenic strains of Staphylococcus aureus were evaluated. Antibiogram tests, minimum inhibitory concentration, and minimum bactericidal concentration were performed with rifampin antibiotic and garlic extract. A biofilm phenotypic test was performed with a 96-well microplate. After RNA extraction from the samples treated with rifampin and garlic extract, cDNA synthesis and then Real-time PCR were performed and the expression of icaA gene was measured.

The antibiogram test showed the antimicrobial effect of garlic extract on at least the standard strain and one of the pathogenic strains as compared to rifampin. The results of Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) were determined for all three strains for rifampin and the combined combination of rifampin and garcin were 375 and 750 μg / ml, respectively. Real-time PCR results showed that in all studied strains, garlic extract and rifampin were able to reduce the expression of icaA gene and the combined use of these two substances led to a significant reduction in the expression of this gene. For the standard strain, rifampin and garlic extract reduced icaA expression to 88% and 60% in the control sample, respectively, and the combination of these two substances resulted in a reduction of icaA biofilm gene expression by about 50%.

In general, it can be concluded that rifampin antibiotic can be effective in inhibiting pathogenic bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus. Garlic extract can also be used as an anti-bacterial drug at both phenotypic and molecular levels.

In this study, the antimicrobial effect of extracts of Ginkgo biloba and Zingiber officinale plants against Staphylococcus aureus and their effect on the expression of sea enterotoxin gene were investigated. Two standard and pathogenic strains of S. aureus with enterotoxin sea gene and G. biloba and Z. officinale extracts were used as ready-made tablets with a specified concentration. Antimicrobial test of the extracts was performed by disk impregnation and then the minimum inhibitory and bacteriocidal concentrations of these extracts were evaluated by MIC and MBC tests and SubMIC concentration of these extracts was used to evaluate the effect of extract treatment on the expression of sea enterotoxin gene. Then RNA extraction and cDNA synthesis and finally Real time PCR were performed and the results were interpreted. The results of disk diffusion and MIC showed that Z. officinale extract has antimicrobial effect. Interpretation of Real time PCR results also showed that Z. officinale extract reduced and completely inhibited the expression of sea enterotoxin gene in standard strain ATCC 25923. This extract also significantly reduced the expression of the target gene in the pathogenic strain, and its expression was reduced to 4% compared to the untreated sample. On the contrary, G. biloba extract significantly increased sea gene expression. This extract increased the expression of the target gene in the standard strain and the pathogen by approximately 55 and 9 fold, respectively. According to the results of this study, ginger can be a good candidate to fight S. aureus infections.

In this study, the effects of peppermint and rose extracts on delaying the aging of Alstroemeria spp. cut flowers were investigated. Peppermint and rose extracts were used in concentrations of 10, 20 and 30%. Quantitative and qualitative traits such as vase life, flower opening index, water uptake, fresh weight, dry weight, population of bacteria in vase solution and stem end, ion leakage, decreasing Brix degree, content of carotenoid and chlorophyll were evaluated. In this study, treatment of 30% rose extract was better than other treatments and the highest vase life, Brix degree, and fresh and dry weights were obtained in this treatment. Treatment of 10% mint extract was also effective in reducing the bacterial population, increasing water absorption and vase life. Treatment of 10% rose extract had the highest efficiency in the process of flower opening and it acted like treatment of 30% rose extract in fresh weight and Brix degree. The highest amount of chlorophyll was related to 20% rose treatment and the highest amount of carotenoid was related to 30% mint extract treatment.

Biofilm is an accumulation of bacteria that increase binding to biological and non-biological levels and causes pathogenicity and infection in Staphylococcus aureus. The icaABCD operon genes are involved. The icaD gene plays an important role in the maximal expression of the enzyme N-acetylglucosamine transferase and leads to the phenotypic expression of extracellular polysaccharide in S. aureus. In this study, based on antibiogram test, the antimicrobial effect of ginger and artichoke extract on two strains of S. aureus was studied. Also, in the studied strains, after the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) tests, using real time PCR technique, the expression of icaD biofilm gene under the treatment of artichoke and ginger extracts was evaluated. The results of disk diffusion test showed that the concentration of 100 mg/ml of ginger and artichoke extracts in the standard and the pathogen strains of Staphylococcus aureus, create a inhibition zone of 15 mm and about 9 mm, respectively. MIC test also showed that the studied strains can grow at a concentration of 5000 µg/ml of plant extracts. The results of icaD gene expression under the influence of artichoke and ginger extracts in the standard strain showed an increase in the expression of this gene. However, in the pathogen strain of Staphylococcus aureus, ginger and artichoke extracts led to a significant reduction (P

The biofilms production by Staphylococcus aureus is one of the problematic factors of these bacteria.One of the biofilm gene loci is icaD, which plays an important role in biofilm production. Many plants have medicinal and antimicrobial properties. In this study the antimicrobial properties and molecular effects of Mary thistle and ginseng extracts on the expression of icaD biofilm gene in S. aureus were studied. The extracts of Mary thistle and ginseng were prepared and after evaluation of bacterial growth inhibition zone under the influence of these extracts, the inhibitory effect of growth was assessed by MIC test. Following RNA extraction and cDNA synthesis from strains treated with Mary thistle and ginseng extracts and untreated strains, the expression levels of icaD biofilm gene in pathogen and standard strains of S. aureus were analyzed by Real time PCR. The diameter of growth inhibition zone in standard strain affected by 100 mg/ml of the Mary thistle and ginseng extracts were 10 and 8 mm, respectively. The diameter of the growth inhibition zone for the pathogen strain was 10 and 12 mm, respectively. A combination of equal use of Mary thistle and ginseng extracts also created a 15 mm growth inhibition zone in both studied strains. In different concentrations of plant extracts (39.6 g/ml to 5000 g/ml) used in MIC, all strains were grown. According to Real time PCR results, icaD biofilm gene expression increased 17-fold in the standard strain treatment with Mary thistle extract and 24-fold under the influence of ginseng extract. In the pathogenic strains, icaD gene expression was reduced to 0.3% under the influence of Mary thistle extract and the expression of this gene was almost inhibited. Ginseng extract also reduced the expression of this gene in the pathogen strain to about 49%. The combined use of Mary thistle and ginseng extracts also reduced icaD gene expression in the pathogen strain to about 6% of the control sample and led to a 94% reduction in the expression of this gene.

In this study the effect of garlic extract and its comparison with gentamicin antibiotic on three strains of S. aureus bacteria was evaluated based on antibiogram method and MIC test, the results of which confirm the anti-staphylococcal effect of garlic extract and its synergistic effect with gentamicin antibiotic. Based on phenotypic test, the effect of garlic extract and gentamicin alone and together on reducing the production of biofilm in this bacterium was evaluated and proven. The presence of icaA gene in the studied strains was confirmed by PCR and using Real time PCR technique, the expression of icaA gene under the treatment of garlic extract, gentamicin and the combined treatment of garlic and gentamicin compared to the untreated samples was studied. For the standard strain, gentamicin and garlic extract reduced icaA gene expression by 59% and 64%, respectively, and combined use of these two substances reduced the expression of this gene by about 25% compared to the control sample. In other words, it led to a 75% reduction in the expression of this gene. In the case of pathogenic strains, these treatments also showed a significant effect on reducing icaA expression, so that the simultaneous use of garlic extract and gentamicin could reduce the expression of this gene to 11% of the untreated sample. In other words, it leads to an 89% reduction in icaA expression. The results of all these tests showed the favorable effect of garlic extract against S. aureus.

Staphylococcus aureus is a bacterial pathogen that is responsible for a broad range of human infections. Infections caused by drug-resistant S. aureus are a global health threat. Biofilm formation capability of S. aureus, which is an important factor in infection establishment and drug resistance and thus therapeutic failure, is mainly mediated by ica operon, which is responsible for the production of polysaccharide intercellular adhesions. Inhibition of bacterial biofilm as a promising antibacterial approach has gained attention recently. In addition, several natural compounds, especially of plant origin, have displayed anti-biofilm potential against bacteria. Allicin is the major bioactive compound found in garlic (Allium sativum) and is responsible for its antimicrobial activity. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the effects of garlic extract in combination with ciprofloxacin on the biofilm formation of pathogenic S. aureus. Antimicrobial effects and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of either the agent alone or in combination were determined, and the bacterial biofilm formation and expression of the icaA gene were investigated. The results showed that garlic extract in combination with ciprofloxacin had a strong biofilm inhibitory potential and reduced biofilm formation by 54-61% compared to the control. The reduction of bacterial biofilm can be attributed to the reduction of the icaA gene, which was reduced by 59-65%. Thus, this study showed that garlic extract can be used as a promising anti-biofilm agent in combination with antibiotics and can be a good candidate to combat bacterial infections.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are one of the most important mycorrhizal symbioses in plants that improve the inorganic nutrition and growth. These fungi act as biofertilizers, bioregulators and bioprotectors. In this research, in order to evaluate the effect of Glomus mosseae‌ and G. intraradices on rooting and growth of olive (Olea europaea L.) cuttings in two cultivars Koroneiki and Yellow, a factorial experiment in a completely randomized design (CRD) in two factors (olive cultivars and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi species) and three replications was done. The results showed that mycorrhizal inoculation create root colonization and colonization severity (the amount of mycorrhizal fungus penetration in the root) in both cultivars. Interaction effect of cultivar and fungi species was significant on all measured traits. Cultivar G. mosseae was significantly superior compared to cultivar G. intraradices and non-inoculated treatment in enhancing all measured traits except for proportion of shoot dry weight to root. Also, the concentration and uptake of phosphorus, iron, potassium and magnesium in leaves and whole plant increased in mycorrhizal treatments. According to the obtained results, it is recommended to use G. mosseae for acceleration of the rooting of cutting and establishment in olive cultivars.

Herbicides are essential inputs in agriculture that despite their many benefits in controlling weeds, can cause damages such as creation resistance to weeds, environmental effects and threats to human health. Therefore, to reduce consumption or reduce their concentration, alternative methods such as weed control using biological microorganisms have been proposed, which to achieve this goal, it is necessary to have a complete understanding of pathogen-host relationships. Achieving such understanding can be difficult and challenging, particularly for large data sets with complex host genotype-by-pathogen strain interactions. To evaluate the pathogenicity of fungi in plant species, in addition to conventional quantitative and descriptive evaluations, the host genotype-pathogen isolates biplot can be used in a single scatter plot. This study was conducted to evaluate the virulence of two funguses on five rice cultivars and four weeds.

In this research, pathogenicity of Curvularia lunata and Alternaria pellucida were studied in two separate experiments on five rice cultivars (Hashemi, Alikazemi, Sepidroud, Khazar, Binam), Eichinochloa oryzicola, E. crus-galli, Sagitaria trifolia and Alisma plantago – aquatica in a completely randomized design with three replications in pot condition, in the greenhouse of Islamic Azad University, Rasht Branch, at 2018. Principal component analysis was performed on two-way data of host genotype -pathogen. The biplot was plotted with the first two principal axes (PC1 and PC2) using GGEBiplotGUI packages (Bernal & Villardon, 2016) in R software.

Analysis of variance was performed separately for weed species and rice cultivars. There were significant differences between rice cultivars in terms of reduction of plant height and fresh and dry weight of the plant in inoculation with C. lunata and in terms of reduction in plant height and dry weight of the plant in inoculation with A. pellucida. In addition, there was a significant difference between weed species in terms of disease rating, decrease in plant height and fresh weight of the plant in inoculation with C. lunata and in all four traits in terms of inoculation with A. pellucida. Comparison of means showed that Hashemi and Ali Kazemi cultivars had the highest disease rating, reduction of plant height and fresh and dry weight of the plant in treatment with C. lunata. Biplot analysis showed the relationships between fungi (as pathogens) and weed species and rice cultivars (as host genotypes) in a pathogen-host view in terms of traits. Average-Tester-Coordination (ATC) view (average of PC1 and PC2 scores for all genotypes) of biplot were indicated that A. plantago – aquatica and E. crus-galli were as the most sensitive and Sepidroud as tolerant genotypes to two fungi according to their disease rating. Based on disease rating, C. lunata can be used for biocontrol of A. plantago–aquatica and E. crus-galli in Ali Kazemi and Binam genotypes. Based on this trait, A. pellucida can be used for biocontrol of S. trifolia in Hashemi. According to dry weight, C. lunata can be used for biocontrol of Sagitaria trifolia in all of the genotypes.

In conclusion, based on disease rating and reduction of plant height and dry and fresh weight of plants, C. lunata was a better antagonistic fungus in dealing with weeds compared to the other fungus especially for A. plantago–aquatica and this fungus could be a potential mycoherbicide for weeds control in paddy fields in the future.

Long vase life is the most important factor determining the economic value of cut flowers. The effect of the pulse treatment of sodium nitroprusside (SNP) was studied at four levels of 0, 20, 40, and 60 µM on the vase life of cut roses (Rosa hybrida L.), lisianthus (Eustoma grandiflorum), and sunflowers (Helianthus annuus L.) in a factorial experiment based on a randomized complete design with three replications and 12 treatments. The results showed that the longest vase life of cut roses (14.33 days) and sunflowers (14.5 days) were obtained from the application of 40 µM SNP whereas cut lisianthus flowers exhibited the longest vase life (14.00 days) when they were treated with 20 µM SNP. This treatment was the most effective in conserving the dry matter of cut roses. SNP significantly reduced ethylene synthesis in cut roses and lisianthus versus the control. The lowest ethylene synthesis in cut sunflowers (0.03 nl l-1 h-1 g-1 FW) was, however, obtained from the treatment of 60 µM SNP. SNP had no significant effect on water uptake, vase solution and stem-end bacterial population, and chlorophyll b. But, it significantly contributed to maintaining the protein content of the studied cut flowers. Overall, it can be said that SNP improves the postharvest longevity of cut roses, lisianthus, and sunflowers by suppressing ethylene synthesis and protecting proteins.

Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) from the Caryophyllaceae family is a perennial shrub that is grown commercially for two years. This cut flower is non-climacteric and sensitive to vascular blockage. This study was conducted to investigate the effect of geranium, eucalyptus and myrtle essential oils on postharvest life of carnation flower in a completely randomized design with 10 treatments in three levels (values ​​of 2, 6 and 10 ml in 600 ml of distilled water from each essential oil and control. In this experiment, traits such as vase life, water uptake, petal protein content, leaf and petal pigments, stem and solution end bacteria and the activity of some enzymes were measured. Analysis of variance showed that the effect of treatments on all measured traits was significant. Mean comparison of treatments showed that both 2 ml myrtle and eucalyptus treatments induced the highest vase life with 15.73 and 15.13 days, respectively, compared to the control with 9.47 days. The highest content of total chlorophyll (11.39 mg g–1 F.W.) was obtained in cut flowers treated with 2 ml eucalyptus. The 2 ml myrtle treatment increased the absorption of water, carotenoids, proteins and superoxide dismutase activity. Counting the vase solution and stem end bacteria showed that the minimum bacteria colony in vase solution (55.00) and stem end (88.00) was obtained in cut flowers treated with 2 ml eucalyptus. Maximum bacteria colony in vase solution (98.33) and stem end (162.00) was counted in control cut flowers. The 10 ml myrtle treatment is not recommended to increase the vase life of carnation cut flowers.

In this research, antibiogram, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) tests were conducted with specific concentrations of rifampin antibiotic and garlic extract (garlic tablet). Biofilm phenotypic test was performed with 96 wells microplate and with different concentrations of rifampin and garlic. Following the extraction of RNA from rifampin and garlic-affected specimens, as well as control, cDNA synthesis and then real time PCR were performed and the icaD gene expression level was measured in the samples. The results of MIC and MBC under rifampin treatment and the combination of garlic and rifampin for all strains were 375 and 750 μg/ml, respectively. Based on Real time PCR results, icaD gene expression was influenced by garlic extract and rifampin, and decreased significantly in the strains. In addition, the rifampin composition and garlic extract resulted in a further reduction in the expression of this gene. Garlic extract and rifampin in the standard strain reduced the icaD expression to 38% and 56%, respectively and the combination of rifampin and garlic extract led to a reduction of 67% of the icaD biofilm gene expression.

The rice blast disease caused by Pyricularia oryzae is one of the most important fungal diseases in Iran and worldwide. From 150 samples of healthy and infected rice seedlings, leaves and spikes collected from paddy fields of Guilan province, 68 fungal isolates were obtained. Eleven isolates identified based on morphological and molecular methods that were not able to cause disease on rice in pathogenicity test including Ulocladium alternariae, Ulocladium cf. alternariae, Ulocladium cf. consortiale, Ulocladium sp., Curvularia pallescens, Preussia sp., Trichoderma harzianum, Trichoderma virens, Trichoderma viride, Alternaria citriand Epicoccum sp. were selected for rice blast disease biocontrol studies. In the laboratory, we useddual culture, culture filtrate, slide culture and volatile metabolites methods and based on results, T. harzianum, T. virens, T. viride, A. citri and U. cf. consortialeisolates had highest percentage of mycelial growth inhibition of P. oryzae. These fungal isolates were inoculated in a four–leaf stage on rice plant of Hashemi cultivar under greenhouse conditions. All inoculated fungi except U. cf. alternariae, reduced leaf blast disease rating, among them T. harzianum with 27.36% reduction in disease rating was the most effective antagonist in greenhouse studies followed by T. virens, T. viride and A. citri. Comparison of data average in least significant difference (LSD) method showed that there was significant difference betweenbiocontrol fungi (T. harzianum, U. cf. alternariae and Preussia sp.)in terms of efficiency in rice blast control. Also, there was a statistically significant difference between the fungi in terms of effect on height, fresh weight and dry weight of rice plants in the greenhouse andamong these fungi, T. harzianum showed the highest efficiency in improving these traits.The results of the present study showed that there are different fungi in microflora of rice plants which are considered as potential biological control of rice blast disease.

Rice foot rot disease caused by Fusarium fujikuroi, is one of the most important rice diseases in the world and in Iran. Integrated management with different methods is very important for the disease. In this research, to find appropriate fungal antagonistic isolates for the biological control of foot rot, the effect of four isolates of Trichoderma spp. and three isolates of Aspergillus spp. were studied on F. fujikuroi in vitro using dual culture, slide culture, volatile metabolites and non–volatile metabolites. The results of research showed that T. harzianum isolate with 81.81% was the most effective isolate in suppressing the mycelium growth of F. fujikuroi. In the volatile metabolites method, T. harzianum and T. virens isolates were the most effective with 73.33% in suppressing the mycelium growth of the pathogen. In the non–volatile metabolites method, A. awamori, T. viride and T. koningi isolates showed the highest percentage of F. fujikuroi inhibition. In the slide culture method, all isolates of Trichoderma spp. and Aspergillus spp. proved to be effective in inhibition of the mycelia of F. fujikuroi. These fungal isolates were inoculated on the rice plant under greenhouse conditions. All inoculated fungi were able to reduce the severity of the disease in the treated plants. The isolates of T. harzianum and T. virens were the most effective fungi in reducing the disease by reducing the severity by 83% and 79%, respectively. Also, application of all the studied fungi in the greenhouse increased the height, fresh weight and dry weight of shoots and roots in the presence of pathogen compared to the control plants (without pathogen). Analysis of variance and comparison of the mean of the treatments showed a significant difference between the fungi except in the dry weight trait. According to the results obtained from biocontrol studies in laboratory and greenhouse, T. harzianum, T. virens and T. viride isolates were the most effective antagonists in controlling rice foot rot disease.

Rice blast disease, which is caused by Pyricularia oryzae, is one of the most important diseases of rice in the world. In this research, out of 150 infected samples collected from rice farms of Guilan province, 20 fungal isolates and 30 bacterial isolates were collected. The isolated bacteria were belonged to Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterobacter sp., Enterobacter cloacaeand Bacillus subtilis. Two methods of dual culture and the production of volatile antifungal metabolites were used in the laboratory in order to study biological control. In the greenhouse trial, rice plants (cv Hashemi) were inoculated with the six bacterial isolates as well as P. oryzaepathogen after 12 days. According to the results of this research, in the dual culture method, P. aeruginosa Y–25–3 with 61.11% and in the volatile metabolite method, B. subtilis W with 60.51% were found to be most effective in suppressing mycelial growth of the pathogenic fungus. All isolates significantly alleviated the severity of the P. oryzae–induced disease in greenhouse, but the most effective was P. aeruginosa, which reduced the disease index by 70.53%. Analysis of variance and comparing the characters average in Duncan test and Least Significant Difference (LSD) and based on a completely randomized design revealed significant differences among the bacteria in terms of mycelial inhibition in the dual culture and volatile metabolite methods. Furthermore, in greenhouse trials there were significant differences in the disease index, plant height and fresh weight among the treatments, whereas the treatments did not exhibit any significant differences in dry weight. Based on the results of biocontrol assays in the laboratory and greenhouse, P. aeruginosa Y–25–3 was recognized as the most effective bacterial isolate in the control of rice blast disease.

Organic farming is the best method for the production of healthy agricultural products. The current research is a descriptive-survey study focused on correlation and comparison. In this research, data were collected by a research made questionnaire and that its validity was confirmed by a panel of experts, and its reliability was measured through Cronbach's alpha formula (0.907). The relationships between independent and the dependent variables were determined by Pearson's correlation coefficient. The statistical population of this research consisted of 50 experts and 100 paddy farmers of Sowme'eh Sara county that were selected by random sampling procedures. The results of this investigation showed a relationship between the dependent and independent variables and thus it was confirmed (P < 0.05) that the impact of the three independent variables was significant on dependent variable at 0.95 level. As a result, all factors as independent variables were effective on the rejection of organic farming. Pearson correlation test showed that all hypotheses were confirmed. Duncan’s test also indicated that there was a significant difference in terms of the rejection of organic farming of rice among the existing factors namely individual characteristics, social factors and economic factors.

In order to investigate the effect of different levels of of IBA and strains of Pseudomonas fluorescens bacteria, an experiment was conducted as factorial with completely randomized design containing two factors and three replications. In the first factor, effect of three levels of IBA (0, 2000 and 4000 mg/ ml) and in the second one effect of two strains of P. fluorescens (R5 and R64) on olive (Olea europaea cv. conservaliya) were investigated. Results showed that bacterial inoculation with R5 strains increased shoot and root dry weight, total dry weight, nitrogen concentration and phosphorus uptake compared to control, but there was no significant difference between R5 and R64 strains in terms of total chlorophyll. The 2000 mg/ml IBA also increased shoot and root dry weight, nitrogen concentration, total chlorophyll and total dry weight related to control, while the maximum phosphorus uptake was obtained in 4000 mg/ml IBA. The interaction effect of IBA and bacteria showed that in morphological characteristics and uptake and concentration of elements, maximum average were obtained in 2000 mg/ml IBA and R5 strain treatment. According to the obtained results, the application of both of 2000 mg/ml IBA and R5 strain for improvement of rooting is recommended.

Aglaonema widuri is an evergreen and indoor ornamental plant. This study aimed to investigate the effect of some plant growth regulators on micropropagation of A. widuri. A protocol was developed for high frequency in vitro multiplication of A. widuri on the same medium for both shoots and roots induction. This condition decreases time duration and cost of micropropagation. Apical buds as explants were obtained from greenhouse-grown A. widuri and were established on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium. Three cytokinins including N6-benzyladenine (BA; 0.00, 3.00, 3.50, and 4.00 mg l-1), 1-phenyl-3-(1,2,3-thiaiazol-5-yl), urea (TDZ; 0.00, 0.50, and 1.00 mg l-1), and N6-(2-isopentenyl) adenine (2-iP; 0.00 and 7.00 mg l-1), along with one auxin [α-naphtalene acetic acid (NAA; 0.00, 0.10, 0.20, 0.30, and 0.40 mg l-1) were studied for their effect on micropropagation of A. widuri. The plantlets were transferred to pots and grown in the greenhouse with a success rate of 95%. BA and NAA treatments as 3.00 mg l-1+ 0.2 mg l-1 recorded the highest shoot proliferation rate (number: 6.00 shoots and length: 7.75 cm per explant). Treatment of 4.00 mg l-1 BA + 0.10 mg l-1 NAA + 0.50 mg l-1 TDZ produced maximum nodes (13.25 per explant). The largest number of leaves (4.25 per explant) was produced in the medium containing 3.50 mg l-1 BA + 0.20 mg l-1 NAA. Maximum root initiation and development (14.25 per explant) was obtained on the medium containing 3.00 mg l-1 BA + 0.20 mg l-1 NAA. The combination of 3.50 mg l-1 BA + 0.20 mg l-1 NAA was found to be the most suitable growth regulator for obtaining the highest root length (8.25 cm per explant).

Barnyardgrass (Echinochloa spp.) is the most important weeds in rice fields. Funguses species play important roles in biological control of the weeds, especially Echinochloain rice fields. In this research, Fusarium equiseti and Colletotrichum graminicola were isolated from E. oryzicolaandE. crus-galli and their pathogenicity effects were compared on these weeds and five rice genotypes in a completely randomized design with three replications. Two net fungi were inoculated on weeds and rice genotypes using a spore suspension consisting of 106 spore·ml-1 of distilled water. Genotype-by-pathogen biplot analysis was down for illustration of pathogenicity of two fungi (as pathogen) on host genotypes to facilitate the simultaneously visualization of relationship among pathogens and genotypes.The significant effects of pathogens were observed on disease rate and reduction of plant height, dry and fresh weight of plantlets. Biplot analysis indicated a differential interaction between pathogens and rice and Echinochloa genotypes for the studied traits. Average-tester-coordination (ATC) view of biplot indicated that Sepidroud and Binam were as the most sensitive and tolerant genotypes to two mentioned fungi according to their disease rating. The relationships view of biplot indicated there were higher positive correlations between diease rate and reduction in plantlet dry weight. Hashemi cultivar located near the biplot origin and had a horizontal resistance to fungi and can be used to biological control of barnyardgrass in the filed of this cultivar. In conclusion, the results of this study based on the severityof the disease showed thatC. graminicolafungus had more antagonistic effectsthanF. equiseti, especialy on E. crus-galli.

Aglaonema widuri is an evergreen and indoor ornamental plant. This study aimed to investigate the effect of some plant growth regulators on micropropagation of A. widuri. A protocol was developed for high frequency in vitro multiplication of A. widuri on the same medium for both shoots and roots induction. This condition decreases time duration and cost of micropropagation. Apical buds as explants were obtained from greenhouse-grown A. widuri and were established on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium. Three cytokinins [N6-benzyladenine (BA; 0.00, 3.00, 3.50, and 4.00 mgL-1), 1-phenyl-3-(1,2,3-thiaiazol-5-yl) urea (TDZ; 0.00, 0.50, and 1.00 mgL-1), and N6-(2-isopentenyl) adenine (2-iP; 0.00 and 7.00 mgL-1)] and one auxin [α-naphtaleneacetic acid (NAA; 0.00, 0.10, 0.20, 0.30, and 0.40 mgL-1)] were studied for their effect on miropropagation of A. widuri. BA and NAA treatments as 3.00 mgL-1 + 0.2 mgL-1 recorded the highest shoot proliferation rate (number: 6.00 shoots and length: 7.75 cm per explant). Treatment of 4.00 mgL-1 BA + 0.10 mgL-1 NAA + 0.50 mgL-1 TDZ produced maximum nodes (13.25 per explant). The largest number of leaf (4.25 per explant) was produced in the medium containing 3.50 mgL-1 BA + 0.20 mgL-1 NAA. Maximum root initiation and development (14.25 per explant) was obtained on medium containing 3.00 mgL-1 BA + 0.20 mgL-1 NAA. The combination of 3.50 mgL-1 BA + 0.20 mgL-1 NAA was found to be the most suitable growth regulators for obtaining the highest root length (8.25 cm per explant). The plantlets were transferred to pots and grown in the greenhouse with a success rate of 95%.

The waste of agricultural products is considered as one of the major problems in Iranian agricultural sector. The present study is a descriptive-survey one in nature that focused on exploring correlations and comparison. Data were collected through a number of questionnaires and were analyzed by SPSS. The relationships between dependent and independent variables were analyzed by obtaining the Pearson's correlation coefficient. The statistical population of the study comprised the participants of vermicompost Training Courses in 2011-12, farmers of Estalkh Zir Village where the vermicompost project was implemented, and facilitators and promoters of the agricultural sector. The results of this investigation showed that there was a relationship between the dependent (familiarity, the skills and interest rate) and independent variables (agricultural waste management) and that it was confirmed p