rasoo l. abedanzadeh

Given the importance of physical education classes and the role of physical education teachers in improving the quality of these classes, it's essential to develop a reliable and valid questionnaire for the self-evaluation of teacher effectiveness in physical education in our country. In this study, the psychometric properties of the Persian version of the self-evaluation of teacher effectiveness questionnaire in physical education (SETEQ-PE) were investigated.

This study is descriptive and survey research using confirmatory factor analysis. The original version of the Self-Evaluation of Teacher Effectiveness Questionnaire in Physical Education (Kyrgiridis et al, 2014) consist of 26 items and 6 subscales of learning environment, student and teacher assessment, application of the content of physical education, use of technology, teaching strategies and lesson implementation. The questionnaire was translated into Persian and was conveniently distributed between 264 (male and female) physical education teachers aged 25-40 years. Internal consistency of the questionnaire and all its six subscales was established using Cronbach's alpha and construction validity was conducted by confirmatory factor analysis based on structural equations modeling.

The results of 1st and 2nd order of confirmatory factor analysis and Cronbach alpha coefficient showed that Persian version of the SETEQ-PE is acceptable in terms of reliabilityand validity among Iranian physical education teachers.

Altogether, results of the present study showed that SETEQ-PEis able to be used as a reliable and valid instrument to measureteaching effectiveness of physical education teachers.

This study aimed to test the optimal theory of motor learning (triple use of autonomy support, enhanced expectancies, and external focus of attention) among teenage girls.

Among all adolescent girls in Najafabad, 32 girls aged 13-15 years were selected using a convenient method. Participants were randomly divided into optimal learning (OL) and control groups. Prior to the acquisition phase (5 blocks of 10 trials), participants in the OL group were allowed to choose their favorite balls (autonomy support). They also received instruction regarding maintaining focus on the path of the ball (external focus) before the sixth trial of every training block. Additionally, before the first and third blocks, the children in the OL group received relatively easy criteria for success (enhanced expectancies). The participants were asked to participate in retention and transfer tests two days after the acquisition phase. Independent T-test and mixed ANOVA were used to analyze the data.

The results revealed that the motor performance and learning of the OL group were higher than the control group.

The findings showed that the theory of optimal motor learning (using autonomy support, enhanced expectancies, and external focus of attention) is relatively acceptable and applicable among girls aged 13-15 years.

Mental toughness, Perceived Motivational Atmosphere, and Perceived Coach Behavior are three psychological structures affecting athletic performance at High skill levels that have not been studied among female teenager athletes. The purpose of this study is to examine these three structures among female teenager footballers.
 

146 of female footballers between 12-15 years of age (mean age 12.9± 1.04), who participated in the national football team's selection, voluntarily participated in this research. The data collection tools were mental toughness (SMTQ), Perceived Motivational Climate (PMCSQ), and Perceived Coach Behavior (LSS) questionnaires. The data was analyzed by structural equation modeling applying Amos22 and at the significant level of P≤0.05.
 

The results of structural equation modeling revealed suitable fit indices. The relationship between supportive coach behaviors with mental toughness and the relationship between democratic coach behaviors with mastery atmosphere were significant, while the rest of the relations were not significant.
 

In the eyes of young female footballers, unsupportive coaching behaviors and supportive coach behaviors can foster a motivational atmosphere toward performing tasks and create mental fortitude, respectively.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the status quo of talent development environment among adolescent football players and its relationship with mental toughness.

The statistical population of this study consisted of all the adolescent football players of Ahvaz city who were active in the football clubs of this city. Eventually, 181 adolescents with the age range of 12-15 years were selected. The tools used in this research were Talent Development Environment (Martindale et al., 2010) and Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaires (Sheard et al., 2009). The data analysis in this study was done by SPSS at significant level P≤0.05. One sample T-Test, Pearson correlation, and regression with Enter method ware used for data analysis.

The results of the research showed the status of the components of the talent development environment of football players is higher than average (except for quality Preparation). In addition, the research showed that there is a direct and significant relationship between the talent development environment and mental toughness.

The status of the components of talent development environment showed that there is an eligible condition for the talent development of young football players in Ahvaz city. The position of the qualitative Preparation component at the cutting point also refers to the insignificant attention of coaches and practitioners to provide the necessary guidelines and introduce effective methods to improve and increase the quality of adolescents' performance. In addition, the effect of the talent development environment on mental toughness also confirms the previous findings.

Researche have shown that simple movement skills are among the prerequisites for the development of more advanced movement skills. Despite extensive studies in the field of movement skills, the influence of active and sports-based video games on the improvement of movement skills has been less discussed.

The aim of this study was to compare the efficacy of active video games and Basic sports games on the gross motor skill and Motivation in elementary school male students.

The research was quasi-experimental with pre-test and post-test design. The statistical population included all 8-10 years Children in Ahvaz. 60 Children were selected by available sampling method and randomly divided into 3 groups of 30 individual. The research instruments were the Brunnicks-Ozertsky test, the Motivation Questionnaire and the Xbox 360 Kinect. First, pre-test data on gross skills and motivation were obtained. The study groups practiced twice for 8 weeks, 30 minutes per session. At the end of the training sessions, a post-test of gross skills and motivation was taken. In order to analyze the data, the covariance analysis method was used using SPSS version 22 software.

The results showed that active and sports-based video games had a significant effect on the development of gross skills and motivation (P<0.05). Also, there was no significant difference between active video games and sports base (P<0.05).

Based on the findings regarding the effectiveness of active and sports-based video games on the development of gross motor skills and motivation in students, it is recommended to teach the use of active video games to improve gross motor skills in students.

People face breaks in their daily tasks that effect on their daily life. The present study was designed to evaluate the effect of different break activities on eye-hand coordination in female students. In the current experimental study conducted with repeated measures design, 36 high school female students with age range 13-15 years old were conveniently selected. In order to evaluate participant's mental activities prior, the main task, daily distraction of them was assessed using a mind wandering questionnaire and visual analogue scale and measuring eye-hand coordination was done by mirror tracking task. Data were analyzed by SPSS software at significant level P≤0/05. The results showed there was significant difference in eye-hand coordination task after break activities (P<0/05). Pairwise comparisons showed a significant difference in the mirror tracking task performance after music-open eye rest and music-active video game break which showed eye-hand coordination after music was better than other breaks. Present findings show that different breaks have different effect on eye-hand coordination performance in female students and listen to music is the best break activity for them on this task.

In addition to physical fitness, psychological factors can have a great impact on athletic performance. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between mental toughness, perceived motivational climate, and goal orientation among professional athletes. The research was a descriptive correlational study. The study population consisted of all professional athletes who participated in different sports teams of the Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz. For this purpose, 120 team athletes were selected by convenience manner, and the following scales were given to response: Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (Sheard, Golby & Wersch, 2009), Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire (Selfriz, Duda & Chi, 1992) and Goal Orientation in Exercise Measure questionnaires (Petherick & Markland, 2008). Data analysis was performed by structural equation modeling at a significance level of ≤0.05. The findings indicated that the relationship between mastery climate and ego/task orientation (PS=0/0001) was positive and significant and the relationship between performance climate and task orientation (P=0/043) was significant. Also, ego (P=0/014) and task orientation (P=0/012)  were positively associated with mental toughness. Based on the findings of the present research, sports psychologists and coaches are recommended to create a mastery climate and emphasis on athletes to base their perceptions of success on personal improvement and skill mastery. Also, these findings provide further evidence for the importance of developing goal orientations in the sport setting.

The aim of this study was to validation of the Persian version of the scale of enjoyment of physical activity in first grade high school students in Khuzestan province.

Among all of high school students in Khuzestan province who were studying in the academic year 1399-1398, 382 were clustered randomly selected (199 boys and 183 girls). The research tool was the scale of enjoyment of physical activity, the validity and reliability of which were also confirmed. The implementation method was such that using the open translation method, the translation accuracy of the Persian version of the scale was confirmed. For data analysis, confirmatory factor analysis was used to validate the structure and internal consistency using Cronbach's alpha coefficient at a significance level of p≤0.05.

The results of confirmatory factor analysis of physical activity enjoyment scale indicators indicate that the measurement model has a favorable fit and all physical fitness subscales of physical activity enjoyment index had an acceptable factor load and were confirmed. The internal consistency was 0.90 and the internal consistency of the pleasure subscale was 0.82%, communication was 0.78%, competency was 0.72%, improvement was 0.70% and entertainment was 0.74%. It came in handy.

Therefore, the Persian version of the scale of enjoyment of physical activity had structural validity and internal reliability and can be used as a valid and stable tool among students.

The present study is to evaluate the effects of break activities (resting with eyes open, listening to music, playing active video game) on working memory and selective attention in female college students. The semi-experimental research was conducted with the repeated measures design. 36 female students from the city of Shoush Danial, who participated in classes in 2019–2020, were selected in a convenient and purposive way. Working memory and selective attention were assessed using N-Back2 (N-B2) and Stroop Word-Color Test (SWCT). In addition, Demographic Questionnaire (DQ), Mental Wondering Questionnaire (MWQ), and Visual Analog Scale (VAS) were used. Data were analyzed with repeated measures ANOVA using SPSS software at p≤0.05 level of significance. The results showed that there was a significant difference in the n-back test after break activities. Pairwise comparisons indicated that the n-back task after open-eye break was better than other breaks. In addition, the results showed that there was no significant difference in selective attention. The present results show that different breaks have a different effect only on working memory performance and not on selective attention. Accordingly, breaking with eyes open improves working memory performance.

The aim of this study was to compare the effective of active video games and sports basic games on the development of fundamental motor skills in elementary school students. The method of the present study is semi-experimental with pretest-posttest design with control group. Sixty male students (age range: 8-11 years old) were selected by convenience sampling and randomly divided into two experimental groups (active video games (XbX), sports basic games) and a control group (inactive video games). The instruments used in this study are the Brunnicks-Ozertsky motor proficiency test, second edition, and the XbX 360 Kinect. First, participants performed motor skills pretest. Experimental groups performed the relevant training program for eight weeks, twice a week and 30 minutes per session. The control group also played passive video games under the full supervision of the Examiner with XbX console. At the end of the training sessions, the second edition of the Bruins Ozertsky motor proficiency test was repeated for all subjects (post-test phase). The results of the present study showed that active video and sports basic groups have a significant effect on the development of basic motor skills. Other results of this study showed that there is a significant difference between groups in the development of fundamental motor skills; these differences were significant with the traditional group, but significant differences were not found between the experimental groups. Therefore, it is recommended that coaches, in addition to sport basic trainings, they should also pay special attention to active video games.

The phenomenon of aging, according to the definition of the World Health Organization, refers to the age of 60, which is the result of the natural course of time, and leads to physiological, psychological and social changes in the elderly understanding the problems of aging is a challenge to any community. Cognitive disorders are among the most common problems in old age and have an extensive range of problems. Studies show that about 5% of people 65 and older have a severe cognitive impairment. Flexibility requires the ability to communicate with the present and differentiate oneself from thoughts and experiences within the psyche. Cognitive flexibility is considered an individualchr('39')s ability to making equilibrium between psychological and well-being factors in hazardous conditions and decreases with aging. Therefore, the exercises that improve the ability of cognitive flexibility are essential. Brain exercises develop neural pathways in the brain through movement. This method can improve cognitive, psychological, and motor functions, including cognitive flexibility, self-confidence, self-esteem, coordination, and concentration. The present study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of brain gym exercises on the cognitive flexibility of the male elderly.

The present study method was semi-experimental with a pre-posttest design and a control group. To this end, 30 elder men were selected by the convenience sample method and randomly divided into two experimental (average mean: 85.7±4.41 years old) and control (average mean: 80.77±3.24 years old) groups. In the course of eight weeks, the experimental group conducted two sessions and each 30-minute session to perform the brain gym exercises. Inclusion criteria for performing the present protocol were: the age of 61 and older, no Alzheimerchr('39')s (cognitive decline), the capacity to follow the set of instructions, ability to exercise, had no severe mobility problems, participated voluntarily in the study, and completed a consent form. Exclusion criteria included: not having enough motivation, not doing the movements correctly, and not attending training sessions regularly. The Wisconsin Card Storing Test was used to evaluate the flexibility of the participants. All the principles of ethics in research have been observed in this research. Participants were aware of   the research’s purpose and were assured of the principle of information confidentiality. In addition, their informed written consent was obtained, and they could refuse to participate in the study if they wished. All stages of the present study were performed under the ethics principles in the research of the Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz with the code of ethics EE/99.3.02.5277/scu.ac.ir

Data were analyzed by a one-way ANCOVA test at a significant level P≤0.05. The covariance analysis results revealed there was a significant difference between the performances of the two groups at post-test (P≤0.01) that favored the experimental group.

The present study results showed that a period of brain exercise training increases the cognitive flexibility of the elderly. According to obtained findings, performing long-term brain gym exercises can be an effective intervention to improve cognitive functions in elderly with cognitive flexibility disorder.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of overweight stereotypical threat on motor learning and balance confidence of the elderly women. Twenty-four elderly women (Mage=62.38 ± 2.68 years) were randomly selected and randomly assigned to two groups of stereotypical threats (emphasis on individual characteristics such as overweight on performance) and control. The task consisted of maintaining the balance on the stabilometer during 30-second trials, 1 trial in the pre-test, 10 trials in the acquisition phase and 5 trials in the retention test. The balance confidence questionnaire was completed in two stages of pre-test and retention. The findings of the study indicated lower motor learning and balance confidence in the overweight stereotypic group compared to the control group, therefore, it is suggested that in similar situations, coaches, with emphasis on the ineffectiveness of individual characteristics Such as overweight on motor performance, reduce stereotype threats and so prevent performance and learning disruptions.

As the age increases, the elderly suffers from cognitive disorders such as memory decline as a natural process. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of a period of brain gym exercises on working memory of male older adults.

In present semi-experimental study with pre-post-test with control group design, 30 elderly male were selected based on availability and randomly divided into two equal groups of 15 experimental (mean age:76.85±4.41 yr) and control (mean age:77.8±3.24 yr). Participants of both groups performed the digit Span Response test to evaluate the working memory in pretest and following 16 training sessions (only experimental group) in post-test. The experimental group performed eight weeks, twice a week and each session within 30 minutes and the control group performed nothing during this period. The data were analyzed using the Mix-MANOVA test and independent and dependent T-tests on the significance level of 0.05 using IBM SPSS22.

The results of Mix-ANOVA showed a significant tow-way interaction (P=0.0001) and independent and paired T-test revealed significant difference between the experimental and control groups in post-test (P=0.0001). Also the progress from pre to post-test was significant for experimental group (P=0.0001).

Based on present findings, it suggests to educators and practitioners in the sports to apply this new method of practice to improve work memory to perform tasks and activities.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of eight-week interactvee video games on the static and dynamic balance of male students.

Thirty high school students from Shadegan city were selected available sampling. The static and dynamic equilibrium test was taken at the pretest stage after the familiarity with the Xbox tool, subjects in the experimental group received intervention of kinect sport games on 8 sessions and 3 sessions each week. Data were analyzed using SPSS software version 22 by using covariance analysis test at significant level P≤ 0.05.

The results of covariance analysis test showed that there was a significant difference in static and dynamic balance between the experimental and control groups (P<0.05). According to the groups mean the experimental group, had better performance than the control group.

In a general conclusion, it can be argued that the presentation of an active video games period intervention can improve the static and dynamic balance in high school students, therefore, it is suggested that this type of intervention be considered in order to improve the static and dynamic balance of high school students.

Aim of this research was investigating of the effect of transcranial direct current stimulation on the working memory in athletes and nonathletes. To this end, 48 persons (18-30 years) purposefully was selected and was equally assigned into two athletes and nonathletes groups. Then, each group was randomly divided to tow actual and artificial stimulation sub-groups. The actual and sham stimulation presented with 2 mA electric current intensity for 20 minutes within three sessions. N-back computer task was used to measure working memory. The results showed the athlete's group rather than nonathlete and the actual stimulation group compared to the Sham group had better performance. The athlete group progressed in the actual stimulation in the post-test. Direct electrical stimulation of the brain so that anodal stimulation on left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and catodal stimulation on right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex improve of working memory in athlete.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of external focus of attention instruction and autonomy support on learning of an aiming task in mentally retarded children. Therefore, 48 children with the age range of 10-14 years among all of the mentally retarded children of Ahvaz, were selected by convenience sampling. Participants performed 10 throws as a pre-test and afterward, according to their scores on pre-test, they were equally divided into four groups (external attention, autonomy support, external attention-autonomy support, control group). The acquisition phase consisted of throwing 100 gram beanbags into a goal that was mounted at a distance of 2 meters from the participants on the wall. Ten minute after the last acquisition block, the participants performed 10 trials as post-test. 48 hours after the acquisition phase, retention test (10 trials) was performed to examine the learning effects of the participants. The data analyzed by Mix-ANOVA 2×2×2 on acquisition phase and two-way ANOVA 2×2 on retention data with using SPSS22 at significant level P≤0.05. The results of this study showed that in the acquisition phase, all of four groups gradually increased their accuracy (P≤0.05) and the external attention+autonomy support group gain the best scores in this phase. Also Results showed significant difference between the groups in the retention test (P≤0.05) and the external attention+autonomy support group presented the greatest throwing accuracy. Therefore, it is suggested that combination of autonomy support and external attention should be used to improve the performance and learning in mentally retarded children.

Improving motor performance in elderly and distinguishing their condition to retrain skills is one of the challenges that any community faces. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the effect of autonomy support and enhancing expectancies on motor learning in elderly women. It was a semi-experimental study was including pretest and posttest design with retention test.  40 women were selected among all elderly women in Andimeshk according to inclusion criteria and availability, with the age range of 60 to 80. Samples were randomly divided into four groups as autonomy support, enhancing expectancies, autonomy support and enhancing expectancies, and control. Participants were required to throw bags (100 g) with their non-dominant arm at a specific target on the ground. After five throws as a pretest, all participants performed 6 phases of 10 trials in the acquisition phase. 24 hours after the acquisition stage, participants attended retention test (with 10 trials) to check learning effects on them. To analyzing data, one way and multiple variance analyses were conducted using SPSS16 at significance level P≤0.05. The results showed that in acquisition and training phases, all groups significantly increased their accuracy (P≤0.05), though difference among groups was not meaningful (P≥0.05). Also, results detected better performance of autonomy support and enhancing expectancies group in retention phase (P≤0.05). Therefore, motor therapists, coaches, and all those associated with the elderly were suggested to use influencing factors to improve elders learning and motor performance.

Research on the effect of visual illusion on motor learning and the self-efficacy of children and adults has shown positive results. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of visual illusion on learning of golf putting and self-efficacy in older adults. In this semi-experimental study, 22 older adults with mean age of 62.72 ± 1.77 years were selected through convenience sampling and randomly divided into two groups: large visual illusion (11) and small visual illusion (11). The participants completed a 2-meter distance golf putting task at pre-test stages (10 trials), acquisition (50 trials; 5 blocks of 10 trials), retention (10 trials), and transfer (10 trials; from a new 2.5 meter) they did. Participants' motor learning was recorded as a radial error in golf putting task. The Bandura self-efficacy questionnaire was used to measure self-efficacy. The results of Mixed ANOVA and t-test showed that although there is no difference between the two types of vision illusion in the acquisition and transfer phase, however, in the retention phase, there is a significant difference between tow visual illusion groups, and the large visual illusion group rather than the small visual illusion group (p≤0.05) resulted in improved motor learning. Also, the results of Mixed ANOVA showed an improvement in self-efficacy in both groups, however, no significant difference was found between the self-efficacy of the two groups. According to the findings of the present study, it can be concluded that older adults, like other age groups, show more motor learning in skills such as golf putting task in large visual illusion conditions. The probable cause of this improvement is an increase in enhanced expectancies in large visual illusion condition.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of active video games on the learning of dart throwing skill in children with autism spectrum disorder. In this semi-experimental study, 30 children with autism spectrum disorder (level 1) in Ahvaz city were purposively selected and randomly assigned to three equal groups (real practice, virtual practice, and control). Firstly, the dart throwing pretest was performed with 10 real trials. Then, the practice groups practiced for 4 sessions during 2 weeks and 30 trials (3 blocks of 10 trials) per session in the acquisition stage. After the last acquisition session, the posttest was performed by 10 trials and retention test was performed after 24 hours. Finally, the transfer test was performed with the counterbalance manner in both environments for all three groups 30 minutes after the retention test. Data were analyzed by mix analysis of variance and post hoc tests at P≤0.05 using SPSS22 software. The results showed a significant difference between the two practice groups in the acquisition stage (P≤0.01) and the virtual group had better performance than the real group. Also, the results indicated that real and virtual groups had better performance than the control group in the retention and transfer tests, and the virtual group had better progress than the real group in the mean scores of dart throwing. In general, the results showed that active video games improved performance and learning of dart throwing in children with autism spectrum disorder.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of self-control feedback on motor learning, balance confidence, and self-efficacy of elderly people in a balancing task. Twenty elderly (all women; Mage= 62.7yr) using a convenience sampling method were selected and randomly divided into two groups of self-control and yoked feedback. The task consisted of standing on a platform of stabilometer and trying to keep the platform horizontally as much as possible, in every 30s trials. At the acquisition phase, ten 30s trials were performed, and 24 hours later, the retention test was completed as five 30s trials. After completing the 5th trials of the acquisition, the participants completed the balance confidence and self-efficacy questionnaire before the retention test. Data were analyzed by mixed-model repeated measures ANOVA and one-way ANCOVA. The results showed that self-control feedback improves the learning of balance and self-efficacy in the elderly.

The motivation for various activities is strongly influenced by individual perceptions of one’s activities toward those activities. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between situational motivation and perceived intensity of exercise in obese women to predict a change in positive effect from a Pilates exercise session. In this quasi-experimental study, 17 obese women with a mean weight of 87.4 ± 0.10, age 39.10 ± 10.0, and a body mass index of 35.9 ± 3.5 voluntarily participated. They responded to the positive affective questionnaire and situational motivation scale before the exercise program. Then performed Pilates training and immediately after the training, they again completed the positive affective questionnaire. The perceived was also measured after exercise. Data were analyzed by paired t-test and hierarchical regression. The results showed a significant difference in the level of positive affect after-before exercise (P≤0.05). Predictive regression analysis was a positive effect on the interaction of internal motivation and perceived severity, as well as their interaction with the identified adjustment factor (P≤0.05). The current findings showed that Pilates exercises improve positive effect in obese women, also internal motivation was seen to be a strong predictor. According to the finding, strengthening the internal motivation in obese women is recommended for physical activity and attaining the positive effect of it.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of different internal and external focus of attention instructions on learning of over hand throw in educable mentally retarded students. In this semi-experimental study, 12 boys and 6 girls from 12 to 14 years of age based on the IQ of 50 to 75 were randomly selected and according to the scores obtained in the pretest, were matched equally in the three groups including internal attention, near external attention and far external attention. Participants in the acquisition stage, in each group performed 4 blocks of 8 trials of throws with preferred hand. There was a 5 minutes resting between them. All three groups performed throws at a distance of 2 meters during the training stages. After the last training session, 10 throws were performed as a post-test and retention and transfer tests were performed 24 hours afterward, each of them included 10 throwing but transfer test was done for all three groups at a distance of 3 meters. Results showed that all three training groups had a progression from pre-test to transfer test and showed a significant difference (P≤0.05). Also the results showed far external attention group led to better learning, and then, the near external attention and internal attention groups, respectively performed better. In general, based on the research findings, the external attention group had a more stable learning and this confirms the constrained action hypothesis of Woolf et al (2001) in mentally retarded children.

: Imagery is the concept of assimilation, creating or recreating a perception experience the sensory moderator in mind. the aim of this study was to the relationship between mirror neuron action and different mental imagery speeds in the motor performance.
The research method was semi-empirical. The subjects included 30 female students of Shahid Chamran University (average age 22± 1.12) selected through a purposive sampling (No experience basketball game) method and categorized in three groups of rapid-speed, real-speed, low-speed imagery. Following the basketball dribble function in pretests, the subjects were involved in imagery for a period of four consecutive days, and were subsequently tested for the real dribble function on the middle cones in the posttests. They were also subjected electroencephalographic assessment during imagery, focusing primarily on the reaction of the mirror neurons within the process.
All of the group improved dribble function (p≤0.05). With the effect size observed a significant improvement in the groups with slow-speed and real-speed imagery compared to those receiving high-speed imagery. Additionally, higher function of the mirror neurons was observed in the groups subjected to slow-speed imagery and also there is significant relationship mirror neuron action and different mental imagery speeds on the basketball dribble function (p≤0.05).
The mirror neurons within the premotor cortex establish an essential nervous mechanism within the cognitive activity pattern which impacts the effect of imagery for the improvement of motor skills.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a severe developmental disorder which leads to physical disability. Positive normative feedback can promote motor learning.
The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of positive normative feedback on learning a throwing task among children with ASD.
This quasi-experimental study was carried out on twenty children with ASD who aged 6–10 years. Children were assigned to a positive normative feedback and a control group. In the positive normative feedback group, children were trained to throw beanbags to a target point on the ground with their nondominant arms. The acquisition phase included six ten-trial sets. Children in both groups received veridical feedback after each trial. However, children in the positive normative feedback group also received bogus feedback (scores, which were 20% greater than their actual scores) about their performance in each set. A retention test was performed 24 h after the acquisition phase. The independent sample t-test and the repeated measures analysis of variance were used to analyze the data.
There was no significant difference between the groups regarding the performance mean score at baseline. Moreover, despite increases in the performance mean scores over time in both groups, between-group differences in the acquisition and the retention phases were not statistically significant (P > 0.05).
Positive normative feedback does not have significant motivational effects on motor learning among children with ASD.