فهرست مطالب surur khorramdel

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is a plant that propagates vegetatively by means of a corm formation. During each growing season, saffron propagates by daughter corms produced from the mother corm. The daughter corms are formed above the mother corm. The mature and bigger corms in the previous studies have shown more flowers and daughter corms. In sustainable agriculture the uptake of different nutrients such as N, P, S, Ca, Cu, Zn, Fe and crop yield is strongly influenced by organic fertilizers, microbial symbionts, such as mycorrhizal fungi, and nitrogen fixing rhizobacteria. Mycorrhiza is particularly important due to its ability to improve the uptake of inorganic P, by the activity of secreted phosphatases and organic compounds. Another advantage conferred by AMF is enhancing plant resistance to several biotic and abiotic stresses including drought, salinity, nutrient deficiency, and toxic metal deposition. Also, the application of organic fertilizer can improve soil fertility, reduce soil-borne diseases, and enhance microbial flora structure. Humic acid is a kind of organic matter produced and accumulated by animal and crop remains through decomposition and transformation of microorganisms with a series of geochemistry processes. This study aimed to investigate the impacts of mycorrhiza inoculation, mother corm weight and humic acid on the daughter corm and flower yield of saffron.  This field experiment was conducted as factorial layout based on a randomized complete block design with three replications at the Agricultural Research Station, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad during the years 2019-2020. Treatments were three mother corm sizes ((such as <4 g (as small corms), 4.1-8 g (as medium corms) and 8.1-12 g (as large corms)), inoculation with three species of mycorrhizal fungi (Glomus etunicatum, G. mosseae and G. intraradices and triple combinations of these species fungi and control (without inoculation)), and two rates of humic acid (with and without humic acid (as control)). Studied traits were flower numbers per unit area, fresh weight of flower, dried weight of flower, fresh weight of stigma, dried weight of stigma, fresh weight of stamen, dried weight of stamen, number of daughter corms and dried weight of daughter corms.  The results showed that the highest rate of large mother corms (8.1-12 g) was observed in large corms + G. intraradices+humic acid with 109 g.m-2. Also, the maximum weight of medium daughter corms (4.1-8 g) was achieved in large mother corms + G. intraradices+ humic acid with 63 g.m-2. The highest numbers of daughter corms were related to triple combinations of mycorrhizal fungi+ large mother corms+ humic acid with 67 corms per m-2. The highest flower numbers (67 flowers per m-2), dried weight of stamen (2.79 g.m-2), dried weight of stamen (0.28 g.m-2), were recorded for triple combinations of mycorrhizal fungi+ large mother corms+ humic acid.  The results showed that the improvement of saffron management (such as selecting bigger and higher quality corm, fertilization, appropriate density, etc.) is the best way to increase the saffron yield. Humic acid recognized as a possible tool in facing environmental problems especially conventional management. Many of their positive effects on soil and plant growth have been demonstrated to rely on their chemical composition. Also, the effect of mycorrhiza symbiosis on a particular plant species meaning that not all AMF fungi nor strains of the same species will have an identical impact on a particular plant species. Therefore, mycorrhiza is of great importance to assure the presence of beneficial symbionts that are adapted to a given soil and climate or if inoculation is planned, to select the most effective partners. Generally, the results revealed that the large mother corms had high correlation with daughter corm yield, flower yield and stigma yield of saffron. Also, humic acid application and inoculation with mycorrhiza species were improved flower yield and daughter corm yield of saffron.

Agricultural ecosystems are a type of ecological systems where functions are organized in the direction of agricultural products and the characteristics of their production are determined based on the consumption of external inputs. In agricultural ecosystems, with monoculture of one cultivar and the excessive use of chemical inputs, crop yields are substantially increased. But the main challenge facing agriculture today is the environmental pollution caused by the use of chemicals and reduction of yield stability. Diversity in the selection of crop plant genotypes by farmers reduce production risk and annual yield fluctuations. Increasing genetic diversity through mixed cultivation of different cultivars or species with different morphological and physiological characteristics make possible use of the environment and resources. One of the ways to improve the quality and stability of wheat production is to increase the genetic diversity in the cultivation systems based on the mixed cultivation patterns. In Iran, excessive use of nitrogen fertilizers in agricultural ecosystems, especially in wheat production systems, is a problem, and it seems that increasing the efficiency of using this input is a very effective way to deal with this problem. The purpose of this research was to investigate the effect of increasing genetic diversity through intercropping of wheat cultivars on the efficiency of nitrogen and water use.

In order to evaluate the effect of increasing the genetic diversity of mixed cultivation of wheat cultivars on improving the efficiency of resource use, an experiment was carried out in the form of completely randomized block design with 3 replications in the research farm of Agriculture Faculty of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad in two crop years 2018-2019. Treatments included pure cultivation and double, triple and quadruple mixtures of four varieties of wheat, Heydari, Pishgam, Pishtaz and Falat, which were introduced in the 60s, 70s, 80s and 90s, respectively, and were in the same maturity group. The amount of absorbed nitrogen, absorption efficiency (NUpE), conversion efficiency (NUtE), nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) and water productivity. The data of the two-year test was compiled using Minitab software ver. 18.0 variance analysis was carried out and Excel software was used to draw graphs.

The results of the experiment showed that there was a significant differences in terms of water consumption efficiency, the amount of absorbed nitrogen, consumption efficiency and nitrogen absorption efficiency for pure and mixed cultivation of different wheat cultivars, but no significant difference observed for nitrogen conversion efficiency (p≤ 0.05). The highest amount of absorbed nitrogen, utilization efficiency, absorption efficiency and nitrogen conversion efficiency were observed for mixed cultivation of Pishtaz + Heydari cultivars (99.1 kg/ha, 34.5%, 69.3%, 49.8%), Pishtaz with Heydari and Falat (111.1 kg per hectare, 36.6%, 78.2%). While the highest water consumption efficiency was achieved for pure and mixed cultivars, respectively, Pishtaz (0.9 kg/m3 water), Pishtaz + Heydari (1.4 kg/m3 water), Pishtaz with Pishgam and Heidari (1.3 kg/m3 water). Water productivity showed a positive and significant correlation with absorption efficiency and nitrogen use efficiency (R2= 0.71, R2= 0.68). Thus, with the increase of nitrogen absorption and consumption efficiency, water consumption efficiency also increased, while no significant correlation was observed between water consumption efficiency and nitrogen conversion efficiency. According to the results of this research and the experiments result of other researchers, it can be said that through mixed cultivation and increasing the genetic diversity of wheat cultivars, the amount of absorption, the absorption efficiency and the efficiency of nitrogen consumption can be improved.

The results of this experiment showed that, by increasing genetic diversity through double and triple mixed cultivation of wheat cultivars, nitrogen efficiency and water consumption improved. In terms of water consumption efficiency, the amount of absorbed nitrogen, consumption efficiency and nitrogen absorption efficiency, there was a significant difference for the pure and mixed cultivation of different wheat cultivars, but no significant difference was observed for the nitrogen conversion efficiency. The highest amount of absorbed nitrogen, utilization efficiency, absorption efficiency and nitrogen conversion efficiency were belonged to the mixed cultivation of Pishtaz + Heidari cultivars, Pishtaz + Heidari + Falat. While the mixture of Pishtaz + Heidari, Pishtaz + Pishgam + Heidari had the highest water productivity.

The purpose of this experiment, evaluation of cow manure and irrigation levels on flower and corms of saffron using Central Composite Design was done with 13 treatments and two replications at the Research Field of the Ferdowsi University of Mashhad during two growing seasons of 2017-2018 and 2018-2019. The treatments were based on low and high cow manure levels (0 and 80 t.ha-1, respectively) and water (120 and 50 percent of water requirement, respectively). The results showed that the linear component's effect was significant on (p≤0.05) daughter corm diameter and numbers of daughter corms for 4-8 g. The square component's effect was significant on (p≤0.05) flower number, fresh weight of flower, the dried weight of stigma, and daughter corm diameter. The interaction effect of full quadratic was significant (p≤0.05) on the dried weight of daughter corms. Lack of fit test had no significant effect on the studied traits. The response variables' full square model gave insignificant lack-of-fit, indicating that the data were satisfactorily explained. The highest values of dried weight of stigma, fresh weight of flower, and flower number were observed for 16 t cow manure per ha+ 5440 m3 water per ha (with, respectively 0.65 and 27.75 g.m-2and 60 No.m-2). The maximum amount for dried weight of daughter corms was observed for 32 t cow manure per ha+ 3200 m3 water per ha (with 4463.31 g.m-2). It is necessary to use 4693.33 m3 water per ha 30.12 t cow manure per ha to obtain optimum conditions under the economic scenario (with desirability index= 0.72).

Proper agronomic management is an important factor for reducing interference between plants and better absorption of resources. Therefore, nutrients loss due to soil erosion, and increased soil temperature are the most obvious problems in saffron farming systems. Herein in this study the effects of agronomic parameters such as corm rates and planting depths on flower yield, stigma yield, daughter corm yield and quality of saffron were evaluated at the Agricultural Research Field, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, during a two-year field experiment (during 2018-2019 and 2019-2020) as factorial layout with a randomized complete block design based on on-farm trials. Treatments were mother corm rates (10, 15 and 20 t corms per ha), and two planting depths (5 and 10 cm). Studied criteria were flower numbers per area, fresh flower yield, dried stigma yield, total weight of daughter corms, total number of daughter corms, daughter corm diameter, number and weight of daughter corms in three groups such as <4, 4.1-8 and >8.1 g and quality (such as crocin, picrocrocin and safranal) in the second year of experiment. The results showed that the planting depth had not significant effect on flower yield and corm yield. Increasing mother corm rate from 10 to 20 t per ha improved flower number (112 flowers per m2), fresh weight of flower (49.71 g/m2) and dried weight of stigma (1.11 g/m2). The highest daughter corm yield was observed in 20 t corms per ha+ 10 cm (181.3 g/m2). Based on the results, if the purpose of saffron cultivation is to achieve the highest flower yield in the first year, it is recommended to increase corm density. However, if the purpose is to obtain the maximum daughter corm yield, so the corm rates per unit area should be considered less. In sum, considering the water shortage especially in arid and semi-arid regions, agronomic management increases land efficiency, improves flower yield and corm yield and increase farmers’ income during perennial life cycle of saffron as a niche crop.

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is a sterile geophyte plant that propagates vegetatively by means of a corm formation. During each growing season, saffron propagates by daughter corms produced from the mother corm. The daughter corms are formed above the mother corm. The plant can be maintained up to 8–10 years. In order to study the effect of corm harvesting year on daughter corm and flower yield of saffron, a four- year experiment was conducted at Research Field, Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran during four growing seasons of 2015-2016, 2016-2017, 2017-2018 and 2018-2019. Treatments were four corm harvesting years that considered as one, two, three and four years aged plots. Studied traits were flower numbers per m2, fresh weight of flower per m2, dried weight of stigma per m2, number of daughter corms per m2, dried weight of daughter corms, daughter corm diameter and number and weight of daughter corms in five weight groups such as <4, 4-8, 8-12, 12-16 and >16 g. Based on the results, the highest production gains in flower numbers (67.1 flowers per m2), flower fresh weight (32.31 g.m-2) and stigma dried weight (0.761 g.m-2) were observed in the second harvesting year. Also, the maximum daughter corm number and daughter corm yield were recorded for the third harvesting year with 189.5 corms.m-2 and 603.91 g.m-2, respectively. Although the progeny corm number continued to rise each year, at the third generation corm production was dominated by corms below 12 g and this suggests a need to lift the corms and replanting at the beginning of the fourth year.

The goal of meta-analysis is to provide knowledge and better understanding of the phenomena under study. The statistical technique of a large collection of analysis results from individual studies for the purpose of integrating the findings. We conducted a global meta-analysis to evaluate the effect of various fertilizers on saffron yield using data obtained from peer-reviewed publication (71 studies representing 14 studies on biofertilizers, 16 studies on compost, 14 studies on humic acid, 26 studies on chemical fertilizers (NPK) and 16 studies integrated application of fertilizers). Based on the results, the highest effect size was related to the impact of humic acid on dried weight of stigma (g=3.434). After humic acid, biofertilizer, chemical fertilizer and compost were computed in the next ranks. The standard error for compost (E = 0.101) was calculated less and with higher accuracy, so it is recommended with 95% confidence interval. Based on the results of Begg and Mazumdar correlation, all studies except humic acid on dried weight of stigma, humic acid on fresh weight of stigma, manure on flower number, chemical fertilizers on dried weight of stigma and chemical fertilizers on fresh weight of flower were homogeneous. Among the application of manure rate, 60 t cow manure per ha and 5 t poultry manure per ha had the highest and lowest effects, respectively. The results of meta-analysis for compost rates on dried weight of stigma indicated that 60 t per ha had the maximum impact. The highest effect of humic acid on dried weight of stigma was computed for 30 kg/ha. Based on the results it seems that there is no good long-term plan to resolve existing problems of soil fertilizers on saffron production systems and most of the experiments are based on researcher’s opinion, ease of implementation or following published articles in credible journals. Generally, the meta-analysis results provide a basis for conducting trade-off analyses to support the fertilizer management and development strategies based on available scientific findings.

Soil is the basic element for all ecosystem services which enhances different functions of ecosystems. It  provides  and  regulates  a  large  number  of  ecosystem  services and functions, and  plays  an  important  role  in  human health. Results of some experiments indicate a positive correlation between ecologically-based soil management with qualitative soil indices. Increase in soil organic matter enhances 10 different functions in agricultural ecosystems including biogeochemical cycle, nutrient returns, formation, and stability of soil aggregate, water purification and holding capacity, pH regulation, decreasing of erosion and finally crop growth improvement. In agricultural ecosystems, crop yield is notably dependent on soil properties. It has been stated that maintaining function and services of ecosystems could only be achieved by proper soil management. As a  consequence  of  land use, global warming, climate  change  and  conventional management,  soil  ecosystem services  are  being  drastically  degraded,  endangering food safety for coming generations. This  decreases  soil  ecosystem  services  and functions regulation  capacity  and  affects  the  sustainability  of  the  communities. It has been observed that no-tillage system which results in less soil disturbance and more accumulated crop residue has physical, chemical, and biological properties.

In order to evaluate soil ecosystem services based on different low and high input management in Khorasan province, the samples were taken from 10 sites by completely randomized design with four replications in 2014. The soil samples were collected from the depth of 0-30 cm in low input fields of saffron and orchards, high input wheat and corn fields, and annual research field (Agricultural Research Station, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad). Physical and chemical soil properties such as bulk density, organic carbon, total nitrogen, available P and K, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and also biological criteria including microbial biomass carbon, dehydrogenase, and phosphatase enzyme activity were measured. Inputs used including chemical fertilizer, herbicide, insecticide, fungicide and also the acreage for wheat, tomato, alfalfa, corn, potato, sugar beet and canola were determined during the growing season of 2013-2014. After calculating greenhouse gases emission including CO2, N2O and CH4 based on emission indices, global warming potential was computed.

Results showed that type of ecosystem management affected all soil properties except the acidity (p ≤ 0.01). Management of high input and annual field crops (experimental) and also farmers’ fields caused reduction of organic carbon content, total nitrogen, available P, available K, EC, microbial biomass carbon, dehydrogenase and phosphatase enzyme activity and carbon sequestration in comparison with perennial field of saffron. However, bulk density was reduced. The highest and the lowest carbon contents were observed for orchard and annual experimental fields with 0.104 and 0.036 percent, respectively. The highest and the lowest sequestered carbon were observed for orchard and annual field crops (experimental) with 335.31 and 182.48 kg carbon per ha, respectively. Management of perennial fields (saffron), annual corn field and annual wheat field caused reduction of 12, 35 and 41 percent, respectively, in sequestered carbon compared with that for orchard fields. The highest global warming potential (GWP) was recorded for corn and potato with 3.69 ton CO2 equivalent per ha which was 53, 37, 16 and 12 percent higher than those for wheat, sugar beet, tomato and corn, respectively. The lowest GWP was recorded for canola with 1.35 ton CO2 equivalent per ha.

It can be concluded that reduction of chemical fertilizer and applying more organic inputs seem to be rational ecological approaches for sustainable management of the cropping ecosystem with a consequence of reduction in greenhouse gases and climate change mitigation. These sustainable practices are crucial to improve soil biodiversity. Using pesticides and herbicides has, however, a negative impact on biodiversity.

In this study, the effects of agronomic management such as crop residue corm density and planting depth on flower and daughter corm criteria and quality of saffron under on-farm conditions at the Organic Field, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad during two growing seasons of 2018-2019 and 2019-2020 were evaluated as strip plot based on randomized complete block design with three replications. Treatments were crop residue (0 and 6 tons of wheat straw per ha), corm density (10, 20 and 30 t.ha-1) and planting depth (8 and 15 cm). Studied criteria were flower numbers per area, fresh flower yield, dried stigma yield, total weight of daughter corms, total number of daughter corms, daughter corm diameter, mean weight of daughter corm and quality (picrocrocin, safranal and crocin). Results showed that the simple effects of crop residue, corm density and planting depth were significant on flower yield, growth and daughter corm yield of saffron in the second year (p≤0.05). The simple and interaction effects of these factors were not significant on quality. Crop residue application were enhanced the flower number, dried weight of stigma, dried weight of daughter corms and number of daughter corms per m2 up to 15, 18, 15 and 3 percent compared with control, respectively. The highest flower number, dried weight of stigma, dried weight of daughter corms and number of daughter corms were observed with 20 ton corms per ha with 326.41 flowers.m-2, 410.18 mg.m-2, 1042.66 g.m-2 and 140.17 daughter corms.m-2, respectively. Increasing planting depth from 8 to 15 cm improved flower number, dried weight of stigma, dried weight of daughter corms and number of daughter corms per m2 up to 11, 15, 45 and 2 percent compared with control, respectively.

Carbon footprint (CF) is the total amount of greenhouse gas emissions per unit of farmlands. Since the used inputs have an important role in greenhouse gas emissions, CF as an ecological indicator have been extensively applied for assessing the environmental externalities in agroecosystems. This study was conducted to estimate the CF and carbon efficiency (CE) of saffron production systems in North Khorasan, Razavi Khorasan and South Khorasan provinces. Also, life cycle assessment analysis is calculated for quantifying the impact of saffron farming activity on the environment. Studied indices were global warming potential (GWP), acidification potential )AP) and eutrophication potential in terrestrial (UPT) and aquatic (UPA) sub-categories, N2Odirect, N2Oindirect, N2O emissions affected as volatilization and leaching, carbon inputs (Ci), carbon outputs (Co), CF and CE. The results revealed that the lowest GWP for saffron production systems was related to south Khorasan with 339.43 kg CO2 equiv./ one kg flower yield. The minimum environmental index (EcoX) was recorded for south Khorasan (0.039 EcoX/ one kg flower yield). N2O emissions in South Khorasan, Razavi Khorasan and North Khorasan provinces were estimated with 95974.51, 199674.4 and 344723 kg N2O per one ha, respectively. The largest N2O emissions affected as leaching and volatilization were calculated for North Khorasan province (with 1.21 and 24.23 kg N2O per one ha, respectively). The maximum Ci and Co were related to North Khorasan province with 117986.52 and 15135.56 kg C per one ha, respectively. The largest CF and CE were computed for North Khorasan and south Khorasan provinces with 7.8 and 0.18, respectively. It concluded that adoption on conservation and reduced tillages, N2- fixing pulses, cover crops and green manures in rotations with saffron and increased nitrogen use efficiency as ecological approaches can optimize the system performance while reducing environmental externalities and the carbon footprint of the crop cultivation. So, with relevant agro-environmental policies in saffron production systems along with the adoption of improved agronomical practices increasing flower yield with no cost the environment can be achieved effectively, efficiently and economically.

Ecosystem Services frameworks are emerging as an approach of capturing the wider impacts of policy decisions or evaluating land use change in order to more comprehensively take into account the range of effects on the environment, and on the benefits humans receive from. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) (2005) defines ecosystem services as ‘‘the benefits that humans obtain from ecosystems”. Costanza et al. (1997) postulated that ecosystem services comprise of ‘‘flows of materials, energy, and information” from the natural environment to the society. Yield and production for agricultural crops have been improved during the last century, however, these achievements have caused different environmental social and safety problems for human and the environment such as increase in greenhouse gases, eutrophication of rivers, lakes and other water bodies.This study aimed to evaluate environmental consequences of agroecosystems managed conventionally in three Razavi Khorasan, South Khorasan and North Khorasan Provinces. The environmental consequences of intensive agriculture were grouped into damages maid to natural resources such as water, air, soil, biodiversity and human health affected by over-consumption of chemical fertilizer, herbicide and pesticide.

Cultivated area and consumption of chemical inputs in North Khorasan, South Khorasan and Razavi Khorasan provinces during 2004-2009 were determined. Environmental impacts were calculated using six categories i.e. air (emission of greenhouse gases such as N2O, CO2 and CH4 to the atmosphere), water (quality criteria such as NO3- and pesticide concentrations in water), soil (amounts of NO3-, organic carbon, pesticides and herbicides in soil), biodiversity (losses of pastures, jungles and bee hives), human health (residues of Diazinone, Azinophos-Methyl and NO3- in some vegetables) and natural resources (losses of nitrogen fertilizers via leaching and volatilization and pesticides consumption effects) affected by chemical inputs such as fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides.

Results indicated that decreasing trends in use of chemical pesticide and herbicide were observed in different agroecosystems of Khorasan. Nitrate of water used in agricultural area was higher than allowable limit of 10 mg per liter. Residues of chemical herbicide including Diazinone and Azinophos- Methyl in irrigated water were 23.18±16.35 and 15.78±0.68 mg.kg-1, respectively. The maximum emission of greenhouse gases including CO2, CH4 and N2O were calculated in Razavi Khorasan. Nitrate concentration in the soil was higher than the critical limit. Organic carbon content in natural habitat and rangeland was higher than that in the cropland. Also, total number of honey hives was increasing but the hives for local bees were almost reaching to zero in the recent years. The maximum range of nitrate for tomato, eggplant, cucumber and spinach were 1.4, 0.75, 17.15 and 7.38% higher than allowable limit, respectively. For sugar beet upper and lower limits of nitrate were lower than the allowable limit.

Soil is a very slow forming resource, and similarly to other habitats and ecosystems, it is coming under intensifying pressures due to anthropocentric and industrial activities. Soil ecosystem services provide multiple benefits to all organisms.Nitrate concentration for leafy vegetable was higher than for kitchen garden plants. Nitrogen and phosphorus contents for soil in Razavi Khorasan were higher relative to North Khorasan and South Khorasan. Nitrogen enhanced soil carbon accumulation as it stimulates plant growth and its productivity. However, accumulation of soil carbon depends on the delicate balance between increased carbon inputs to soil from litter and enhanced soil respiration rates. Crop residues and manure are returned to the soil in traditional farming systems, improving soil ecosystem services and soil chemical, physical and biological characteristics. On the other hand, application of inorganic and chemical fertilizers to benefit crop yields often decreases the soil services as it has negative influences on soil structure, infiltration and water-holding capacity.

It has been predicted that the population of the world will reach up to 9 billion people until middle of current century so to meet the demands for food, it is necessary to supply more by developing sustainable agriculture and ecological intensification of food production to avoid disadvantages of conventional agriculture. Intercropping is one of the sustainable agriculture strategies that has been proven that causes more use of available resources by intercropped species. It is one of the key strategies of sustainable agriculture because of its efficiency in using of the resources like nitrogen, light and water and improving vulnerability of crops against diseases and pests. Pulses are very valuable for agroecosystems and human health, because of many advantages like high protein content and nutritional values and symbiotic fixation of nitrogen. So, an experiment was conducted in order to study of yield characteristics of black-eyed pea (BEP), the pinto bean (PB), kidney bean (KB) and green bean (GB) as bean ecotypes affected by intercropping with cucumber and partial land equivalent ratio (LER) of the beans.

The experiment was held during growing season 2015-16 in the experimental field of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad based on a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with six and eight treatments (for different studied indices) and three replications. Treatments included sole culture of BEP, PB, KB and GB and their 1:1 ratio in replacement intercropping with cucumber. The plots had five 120-cm sized width and 6×3 meter dimensions. The gaps between the plots and the blocks were one and two meters, respectively. The studied indices included the number of sub-branches per plant, stem length, number and weight of seeds per pod, numbers and weights of pods and seeds per plant, shrub and plant [dry] weights, 100-seed weight, biological and economic yields and harvest index for seeds of grain bean ecotypes (including BEP, PB and KB), and for GB, studied indices included the number of seeds per plant, 100-seed weight and economic yield (total weight of harvested green pods per ha). Partial LER of the studied plants was calculated and finally statistical analysis of data and drawing the figures done using SAS v.9.2 and MS Excel 2016 respectively. Duncan’s multiple range test (DMRT) also used for comparing the means at probability level of %5.

The results showed that except the number of sub-branches per plant, there were significant differences between the treatments for all other studied indices. The highest stem length was recorded in sole culture of BEP that was significantly different compared with other treatments but there was no significant difference between sole culture and intercropping treatments of PB and KB. Competition for interception of light may cause this result for BEP. Number and weight of seeds per pod and numbers and weights of pods and seeds per plant were higher in intercropping treatments of the plants in comparison of their sole culture. Many other studies like results of Noorbakhsh et al, (2015) and Khalaf (2016) support our findings. 100-seed weight was different between the plants but no significant difference was observed between intercropping and sole culture of each plant. It seems that 100-seed weight is a genetic property that not be affected by intercropping. The biological and economic yield of the bean ecotypes were significantly higher in their sole culture compared with their intercropping due to lower plant density in intercropping but by considering the results of partial LER calculation, it concludes that intercropping was more useful for all studied plants. The highest value of partial LER (0.69) was calculated in GB and the lowest one was recorded to KB. The economic part of GB was its green pods, so its partial LER was higher than another studied plants in comparison of other plants that their seeds form their economic yield. Similar to 100-seed weight, the harvest index was statistically different between the bean ecotypes but it was similar between sole culture and intercropping treatments of each plant because of parallel trends of variations of biological and economic yields of the plants.

Based on the results, intercropping of BEP, PB, KB and GB with cucumber is benefit for ecological intensification of production of the studied pulses. So, it can be suggested as an efficient strategy for sustainable development of food production.

Weeds are one of the major reducing factors in tomato production. Cover crops have several features that can inhibit germination and decline emergence and establishment of weeds. The aim of this research was to investigate weed control by using winter cover crop species in production of tomato crops.

The experiment was conducted as split plot based on a randomized complete block design at Sabouri Field, Khorasan Razavi Agricultural and Natural Resources Research and Education Center during 2017-2018. Four winter cover crops (WCC) [such as chickling pea (Lathyrus sativus), hairy vetch (Vicia villosa), fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) and rye (Secale cereale)], irrigation (tilled soil without WCC) and control (tilled soil without irrigation) were considered as main factor and sub plots were two tomato cultivars (8320 and 6515 from FALAT Co.). WCC were converted into mulches in spring. Studied criteria were relative density, density and dry weight of weeds per unit area and number (in three stages such as 30 days after planting time, 50 days after planting time and before planting time) and fruit yield and Brix index in three ripening stages.

The results showed that species of weeds controlled varies widely between WCCs. The minimum density and dry weight of weeds were belonged to hairy vetch and rye and the maximum was for control. Hairy vetch and rye are allelopathic with better efficacy against annual dicots than grasses. The simple and interaction effect of WCC and cultivar were significant on fruit number, fruit yield and Brix index. The highest and the lowest yield for the first, second and third ripening stages were observed in hairy vetch and control, respectively. Total yield for 6515 cultivar was 15 percent higher than 8320 cultivar. The highest and the lowest fruit numbers for the first, second and third ripening stages were related to hairy vetch (with 75.31, 37.78 and 22.3 fruits.m-2) and control (with 54.33, 22.78 and 8.85 fruits.m-2), respectively. Brix index for 8320 cultivar was higher than 6515 cultivar.

In general, annual, biennial or perennial weeds are suppressed by WCCs. This research indicate that WCCs could be used successfully in integrated weed management to decline weed infestation in tomato production.

Optimization is one management approach to improve yield and resource efficiencies and decrease environmental pollutions in saffron agroecosystems. Response- surface methodology (RSM) is defined as a set of statistical techniques that are used to optimize a product. In this work, optimization of cow manure and leaf spraying with Dalfard on saffron using RSM was done. An experiment was conducted using central composite design with 13 treatments and two replications at the Agricultural Research Field of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad during two growing seasons of 2015-2016 and 2016-2017. The treatments were allocated based on low and high levels of cow manure (0 and 100 t.ha-1, respectively) and leaf spraying concentration with Dalfard ® (0 and 10 ppm, respectively). Flower yield, daughter corm yield and quality criteria were calculated as dependent variables and changes of these variables were evaluated by a regression model. Lack-of-fit test was used to evaluate the quality of the fitted model. The adequacy of the model was tested by analysis of variance. The quality of the fitted models was judged using the determination coefficient (R2). Finally, the optimum levels of cow manure and leaf spraying concentration were calculated based on economic scenario. The results showed that effect of linear component was significant on quality characteristics of stigma. Effect of square component was significant on dried weight of stigma, mean diameter of daughter corm, number of daughter corms per m2, mean weight of daughter corm and crocin content. Interaction effect of full quadratic component was significant on flower yield criteria. Lack of fit test had no significant effect on the studied traits that represent the full square model was satisfactorily explained. The maximum observed value for number of daughter corms was recorded for 50 t cow manure per ha+ no leaf spraying (with 41.38 corms.m-2). The highest observed value for dried stigma yield was related to 100 t cow manure per ha+ no leaf spraying (with 156.33 mg.m-2). The maximum observed amounts for quality criteria such as picrocrocin, crocin and safranal were calculated for 100 t cow manure per ha+ 10 ppm leaf spraying (with 89.91 E1%257, 180.98 E1%440 and 40.15 E1%330, respectively). Dried weight of stigma, number of daughter corms and crocin content were considered in economic scenario, so the estimated levels for cow manure and Dalfard concentration were 92.67 t/ha and 1.2 ppm, respectively. In general, it seems that resource use optimization based on Response- surface methodology may be suitable cropping approach for sustainable production and improvement of yield flower, corm yield and quality characteristics in saffron.

Saffron field from the onset of dormancy to flowering phase is free of vegetation and increased soil temperature and reduced land use efficiency are the clearest problems of sole saffron cultivation. In order to study the effect of intercropping patterns of mallow (Malva sylvetris L.) as a perennial medicinal plant with saffron (Crocus sativus L.) on replacement corm growth and flower yield affected as possible cooling of corms for climate change and global warming mitigation, an experiment was conducted at Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran during three growing seasons of 2015-2016, 2016-2017 and 2017-2018. Treatments were 15, 30, 45 and 60-cm row spacings for saffron from mallow planting rows and sole saffron and mallow cultivations. Based on results in the third year, the effect of intercropping patterns with mallow was significant on yield indicators of flower and corm of saffron. In comparison between sole cultivation and intercropped saffron revealed that the highest values for flower number, dried stigma yield and yield of replacement corms were recorded for sole saffron cultivation with 81 flowers.m-2, 0.2115 g.m-2 and 26.51 g.m-2, respectively. In comparisons amongst intercropping patterns, the highest values for these criteria were related to 30-cm row spacings from mallow with 46 flowers.m-2, 0.155 g.m-2 and 13.39 g.m-2, respectively. However, corcin, picrocrocin and safranal contents were not significantly affected by intercropping patterns with mallow. Effect of intercropped saffron was significant on fresh weight of flower, dried weight of flower and branches number per plant of mallow. The maximum value for dried flower weight was observed for 60-cm row spacing with 28.89 g.m-2. The range for LER calculated with 1.01-1.77 and the maximum value was for 15-cm row spacing.

The aims of the present study were to compare irrigated wheat (as a high input and conventional system) and saffron (as a low input and traditional system) production systems in Khorasan-e Razavi during 2018. Data for wheat (as an annual crop) and saffron (as a 6-year perennial crop) were collected from 32 growers by using a face-to-face questionnaire in 2018. Energy efficiency indicators, economic indicators, ecological indicators for land, water and chemical fertilizers and life cycle assessment (LCA) were calculated accordingly. In this regard, four phases, which are goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, impact assessment and interpretation, were designed to assess life cycle index based on ISO14044 procedure. The maximum inputs for wheat system were related to nitrogen fertilizer and diesel fuel and for saffron systems were corm and electricity. Energy productivity for saffron and wheat systems were computed 0.000019 and 0.097 kg.MJ-1, and energy intensiveness were 46.93 and 33.48 MJ.$-1, respectively. Land use efficiency for wheat and saffron were calculated with 21.36 and 0.01 kg.ha-1 and economic land productivity were 1.51 and 0.52 $.kg-1day-1, respectively. Nitrogen use efficiency for wheat and saffron agroecosystems were recorded with 24.57 and 0.04, respectively. The highest emission of pollutants was belonged to eutrophication aquatic category. Aquatic eutrophication potential for saffron and wheat farming systems were computed with 9.68 kg PO4 eq./one kg of stigma and 0.26 9.68 kg PO4 eq./one tonne of seed, respectively. Environmental indicators for saffron and wheat agroecosystems were calculated with 22.62 Ecox per one kg of stigma and 0.46 Ecox per one tonne of seed, respectively.

Response surface methodology (RSM) is defined as a set of mathematical and statistical techniques that are used to optimize yield of a product. In order to study the effects of urban waste compost and corm rates on flower yield of saffron using RSM, an experiment was conducted at the Research Field of the Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran during the growing season of 2017-2018. The treatments were determined based on low and high levels of urban waste compost (0 and 20 t.ha-1, respectively) and corm weight (5 and 15 t.ha-1, respectively). These were computed by using Minitab V. 17. Dry weight of stigma, dry weight of style, fresh weight of flower, flower number, corm number, dry weight of corm, and number of buds per corm were calculated as dependent variables and changes of these variables were evaluated by using a regression model. Lack-of-fit test was used to evaluate the quality of the fitted model. The adequacy of the model was tested by analysis of variance. In general, the full quadratic polynomial equation was tested to determine significance of the model and the components (such as linear, squared and first-order interaction terms). The quality of the fitted model was judged using the determination coefficient (R2). The results show that the effect of linear component on all traits studied except fresh weight of flower, dry weight of corm 0-4g, and number of buds per corm 0-4 and 8-4 grams were significant. The effect of total grade two had a significant effect on the traits of flower number, fresh weight of flower, dry weight of stigma, dry weight of style, number of daughter corms per 0-4, 4-8 and >8 grams, dry weight of corm per 4-8 and >8 grams and number of buds per >8 grams was significant. Also, the interaction effect of two factors of urban waste compost and weight corm on the number of flowers, fresh weight of flower, dry weight of stigma, dry weight of style, number of daughter corms per 4-8 and >8 grams, dry weight of corm 4-8 and >8 grams, and number of buds per corm >8 grams were significant. Lack of fit test had no significant effect on the studied traits. The full square model for the response variables gave insignificant lack-of-fit indicating that the data of experiment were satisfactorily explained. The highest flower number, fresh weight of flower, stigma dry weight and style dry weight were observed for 5 t.ha-1 corm+ 20 t.ha-1 compost. Optimum of corm weight and urban waste compost and desirability for the traits related to flower and corm with 5 t.ha-1, 20 t.ha-1and d = 0.92 were urban waste compost with 12 t.ha-1, 20 t.ha-1and d = 0.95, respectively. Based on the results, municipal waste compost and corm weight had a positive effect on most of the studied traits.

Saffron is considered to be one of the most expensive agricultural products in the world. Saffron specific compounds including crocin, picrocrocin and safranal. Different drying methods, not only differ in energy consumption but also, influence the chemical and sensory properties of saffron. Accordingly, the current study was aimed to investigate the effect of different drying techniques on quality of saffron. The experiment was laid out as a completely randomized design with four replications at Ferdowsi University of Mashhad Faculty of Agriculture, Mashhad Iran in 2015, 2016 and 2017. Four different drying techniques i.e. traditional technique (shade dried at laboratory temperature), oven (at 40, 60 and 80° C), microwave (at 200, 400 and 600 watts), freeze (at -18° C for 5 h and then heating at 60±5 with evacuation intervals of 15, 10, 10 and 10 minutes) were considered as the treatments. Chemical tests were performed according to ISO 3632-2 (E) 1993 and safranal was measured using chromatography. The results indicated that chemical properties of stigma including moisture percentage, total ash, insoluble ash in acid and soluble extract in cold water and nitrogen are in accordance with Iranian National Standards. The maximum picrocrocin (140.66%) and safranal (42.64%) were obtained when stigmas were dried using microwave technique at 600 w. The maximum crocin percentage was related to freezing technique (299.64). The maximum (245.91) and minimum (88.15) safranal weight percentage were observed when freezing and traditional techniques were practiced. According to the results, although preserving all the qualitative features of saffron during drying process seems difficult, in order to achieve a higher level of quality, controlled methods such as microwave or freezing techniques are recommended.

In order to investigate the effect of spreading time and application rates of wheat straw as mulch on Saffron corm and flower yield, a field experiment was conducted as factorial layout based on randomized complete block design with three replications at Gonabad Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Station, Center for Research and Agricultural Education and Natural Resources of Khorasan Razavi in years 2015-16. The treatments were all combination of wheat straw in four levels (2, 4, 6 and 8 t.ha-1) and time of wheat straw spreading in three dates (22 June, 6 July and 23August). The results showed that the rate and time of straw application and their interaction had significant effect on all studied characteristics of saffron flower. Spreading of wheat straw at 22 June compared to 6 July and 23August had the highest significant effect on increasing flower number, fresh flower yield, dry stigma and style yield (up to 41.7, 16.9 and 50 percent, respectively). In addition, all studied criteria of saffron replacement corms were significantly affected by the time of wheat straw spreading, different levels of wheat straw application and their interactions. Among the studied treatments, the highest corm yield in terms of more than 8g (595.65 g) and total saffron replacement corms yield were obtained in applying 8 t.ha-1 wheat straw at 22 June (1163 g). Compared to the treatment of 2 tons per hectare, the remnants on the same date show an increase of 112.2 and 12.9 percent, respectively.

Under limited moisture conditions, various row planting arrangements have been utilized to provide additional moisture for plant growth and development. Planting patterns had significant effects on the availability of water in time to better match crop development.Soil fertility is one of the most important factors in agricultural operations. Also, soil fertility greatly contributes to yield differences for the same agronomic practices. It is well-known from numerous fertilizer experiments that mallow yield is strongly dependent on the supply of organic matter and mineral nutrients. Cow manure and municipal waste compost in controlling different types of debris and the reduction in fertilizer consumption in agricultural products and mineral absorption elements improve low consumption by plants. Mallow (Malva sylvestris) (Malvaceae) is a medicinal plant that it was used for its emollient and laxative properties and is a popular medicine. Mallow broadly used for various inflammatory conditions (Wichtl, 2004). Phytochemical studies of this plant revealed the presence of numerous polysaccharides, anthocyanins, coumarins, tannins, flavones, flavonols, anthocyanidins, leucoanthocyanidines, mucilagen and essential oil (Unver et al., 2009). Therefore, the objectives of the current study are to evaluate the effects of planting pattern and fertilizer treatments on growth, flower and seed yield of mallow as a medicinal plant.

A field experiment was conducted as a split-plot based on a complete randomized block design with three replications at Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad during two growing seasons of 2012-2013 and 2013-2014. Fertilizer sources of cow manure (40 t.ha-1), municipal waste compost (20 t.ha-1), chemical fertilizer and control (without fertilizer), three planting patterns included 70 cm apart single side row, 90 cm apart single side row and two side rows and two harvests were the main, sub and subfactors, respectively. After land preparation, organic fertilizers were added to the soil. Based on nutrient contents in organic fertilizers, N, P and K for chemical fertilizers were determined by 114, 18 and 220 kg.ha-1. P (as triple superphosphate) and K (potassium sulfate) were applied just before sowing. Urea (N fertilizer) was applied as a top dressing in three stages such as sowing, thinning and flowering stages when the crop was irrigated.Plant height, the fresh yield of flower, the dry yield of flower, biological yield, seed yield and mucilage content of mallow were measured. To analyze the variance of the experimental data and drawing of diagrams, MSTAT-C and Excel software was used. All the averages were compared according to Duncan’s multiple range test (p≤0.05).

The results showed that the simple and interaction effects were significant on most studied traits. The highest dry yield of the flower was observed in the interaction of manure+ two side rows (4071.17 kg.ha-1) and the lowest was for control+90 cm apart single row (1095.85 kg.ha-1). The maximum and the minimum dry yield of the flower were observed in manure in the second harvest (4596.06 kg.ha-1) and for control in the first harvest (941.69 kg.ha-1) treatment, respectively. The highest biological yield and seed yield were obtained in two side rows (4731.01 and 813.60 kg.ha-1) and the lowest was for 90 cm apart single row (with 3880.96 and 635.74 kg.ha-1), respectively. Manure affected mucilage percent significantly, (12.06%) and the lowest was for chemical fertilizer (9.32%).

Manure increased nutrient uptake by plants, improving plant hormone-like activity, increase soil water holding capacity, and generally improve the growth and yield of medicinal plant. It can be concluded that two side rows and cow manure could be considered as a suitable treatment for improving quantity and quality yield of this medicinal plant.

Cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.) is a small annual herbaceous and annual medicinal plant that is a member of the aromatic plant family (Apiaceae). It is planted in arid and semi-arid regions of Iran. The seeds are used to add flavor to spicy dishes. Cumin seeds contain numerous phytochemicals that are known to have antioxidant, carminative and anti-flatulent properties. In addition, the seeds yield about 22% fats, numerous free amino acids, and a variety of flavonoid glycosides. Persian shallot (Allium altissimum Regel.) is a medicinal, industrial and perennial plant that belongs to the Alliaceae family and has underground bulbs. It is native and endemic of Iran and grows wild on the mountains quite resistant to cold and freezing stress. Persian shallot is widely used in food and medicinal industries. Intercropping allows for improved resource use efficiency such as light, water and nutrients and beneficial interactions between the plants. Intercropping work to decrease the spread of plant diseases by reducing the quantity of susceptible host plants. Other benefits of intercropping include optimal use of resources, stabilization of yield, weed suppression, improved soil fertility conservation, and higher economic returns. The paper evaluated the effect of intercropping ratios as replacement series of cumin and Persian shallot on growth physiological indices such as dry matter (DM), leaf area index (LAI), crop growth rate (CGR) and relative growth rate (RGR).          

This experiment was conducted based on a randomized complete block design with three replications at the Agricultural Research Station, College of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad during growing season of 2014-2015. Replacement intercropping ratios such as 80% cumin+20% shallot, 60% cumin+40% shallot, 50% cumin+50% shallot, 40% cumin+60% shallot, 20% cumin+80% shallot and their monoculture were considered as treatments. Plant density for shallot bulbs and cumin seeds were considered as 10 bulbs.m-2 and 120 plants.m-2, respectively. DM, LAI, CGR and RGR were measured and calculated were measured and calculated. In order to measure the growth indices, the destructive samplings were carried out every 10 days from 50 cm of row in each plot. All plants were harvested by cutting at the soil surface. Plants were then divided into leaf and stem. The areas of green leaves were measured using a Delta-T leaf area meter (Delta-T Devices, Cambridge, England). Then the samples including stems and leaves were dried in a forced-air oven at 70 ০C for 48 h and after witch DM was measured. The leaf area data was divided to ground area and the leaf area index (LAI) was obtained. The LAI data was fitted to the equation to predict the LAI in growth season. The sigmoid equation was fitted to the TDM data and by derivation from this equation, CGR and RGR were obtained. The graphs were drawn by Excel.

The results showed that the maximum and the minimum DM of cumin and Persian shallot were observed in their monoculture with 426 and 289 g.m-2, respectively. Crop growth rate of cumin reached to its peak in 50 days after planting followed by a decreasing trend afterwards, the highest and the lowest CGR were recorded in monoculture (8.45 g.m-2.d-1) and 20% cumin+80% Persian shallot (13.7 g.m-2.d-1), respectively. For Persian shallot, the time was calculated with 55 days after emergence. The maximum and the minimum CGR of Persian shallot were calculated for its monoculture (8.0 g.m-2.d-1) and 80% cumin+20% Persian shallot, respectively. RGR in all intercropped treatments declined as plant age increased, so that at the end of growth season RGR got close to zero. At the beginning of growth stage, due to radiation penetration and less shading and less respiration, RGR is more and its reduction slope is less.

The results indicated that the intercropping of cumin with Persian shallot increased growth physiological indices such as LAI, DM, CGR and RGR. Studied traits of cumin and Persian shallot were increased by changing in planting ratios from intercropping to its monoculture. The results confirmed the better use of resources especially for radiation and water of these plants in intercropping treatments.

Since the emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) has changed the chemical composition of the atmosphere, a wide global consensus has emerged on the anthropogenic accumulation of GHGs in the atmosphere. Women have a vital role in agriculture, but the gap in gender-based studies on the significant effects of agriculture on carbon emissions through production has not yet been filled. Therefore, a detailed analysis of how the gender factor affects GHGs emission is essential. In this sense, the present study investigated the effect of farmers' gender on global warming potential (GWP) in rice production systems during 2014-2015 in Babol County in Mazandaran Province, Iran. To this end, GHG emissions from male- and female-head rice farms were compared using the carbon input (kg.C.equivalent.ha−1) and output (kg.C.equivalent.ha−1), sustainability indices, and carbon efficiency.

The data was gathered from 120 rice farmers (60 males and 60 females) through questionnaires and face-to-face interviews. The methodology of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change was used to calculate the GHGs emission of each farm. Each GHG such as carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) has GWP, which is the warming influence relative to that of carbon
dioxide. Emissions were measured in terms of a reference gas, CO2 and reported based on CO2 equivalent. The
method was restricted to a farm boundary and extracted into spreadsheets, which compute the baseline CH4 and N2O emissions for each farm. The indices of sustainability were estimated by assessing the temporary changes in output/input or (output-input)/input ratios of C to determine the share of anthropogenic GHGs emission in the atmosphere to determine the intensity of energy flow, carbon savings, and GHG emissions from women-headed and men-headed rice farms.

The results demonstrated considerable differences between farms headed by women and headed by men in terms of GWP (2930.31 and 3291.35 kg.CO2.equivalent.ha-1 for female-headed and male-headed farms, respectively) since more agricultural inputs were employed in farms headed by men. The dominant share of GWP for farms headed by men and women from the highest to the lowest was due to fossil fuels, machinery, and N fertilizers. The indices of carbon efficiency and carbon sustainability were respectively 3.88 and 2.88 in farms headed by women, and 3.55 and 2.55 in farms headed by men.

The largest proportion of GHGs emission was due to fossil fuels in both female-headed and male-headed farms. This was attributed to outdated diesel pumps, excessive machinery traffic in agroecosystems, incompatibility between the power and performance of the equipment with the requirements of female-headed farms, and the relatively low price of fossil fuels. In line with these results, it can be concluded that resource-use patterns for the establishment, production, harvesting, and transportation in the rice fields are compatible with landscapes and masculine norms. Females, like males, used machinery and tools that consumed large amounts of fossil fuels; however, female-headed farms were smaller and wasted more energy, which in turn increased the level of mitigation. The findings suggested that farms by women produced fewer GHGs because the carbon input was used in a more environment-friendly manner than in the male-headed farms. Finally, several “soft” policies, such as gender-sensitive capacity development programs, are proposed to address the share of farmers in the emission of GHGs from subsistence farming systems on a gender basis.

Canary seed (Phalaris canariensis L.) from poaceae family is a drought tolerant plant. Canary seed originally is native to Mediterranean region, and can be grown commercially in several parts of the world.
Evaluation of different systems of plant feeding to achieve a high yield and desirable quality is one of the important requirements in agricultural planning . Therefore, gradually replacing chemical fertilizers with biological and organic fertilizers will result in providing nutrient requirements of plants, improvement of physical, chemical and biological conditions of soil and reduction of adverse environmental effects. Therefore, the aim of this research is to study the effect of deficit irrigation and managing the use of chemical and organic fertilizers individually or  combined on yield and yield components of canary seed. To investigate the effects of different levels of irrigation water and integrated management of chemical and organic fertilizers on growth indices, yield and yield components of Canary seed plant, an experiment was conducted as split plot based on a randomized complete block design with three replications at Agricultural Research Station, College of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran during growing season of 2013-2014.
Main plots considered different irrigation regimes  with three levels (60, 80 and 100 percent of water requirement) and sub-plots considered for fertilizer treatments in six levels (chemical fertilizer, vermicompost fertilizer, manure, chemical fertilizer + vermicompost fertilizer, chemical fertilizer + manure and control). The amounts of treatment of nitrogen chemical fertilizer (200 kg ha-1 of urea source and 150 kg ha-1 of triple super phosphate) were applied in related plots. The amounts of manure fertilizers (30 t ha-1) and vermicompost (6 t ha-1) were determined and applied based on recommended amount of nitrogen. Water requirement of Canary seed was estimated by the OPTIWAT software under general condition of Mashhad
Before final harvest of the grain, 10 bushes were randomly chosen from each plot and traits such as bush height, the number of tillers per bush, the number of prolific tillers in each bush, the number of spikes in each bush, the number of grains in each spike, the grain weight in each spike and bush, 1000 grain weight and harvest index were determined. Then, considering margin from a surface equivalent to 1.4 m2, plants were harvested from the height 3-5 cm and the produced biomass in each plot was recorded. Then, grains were separated from straw and the grain yield was determined in each plot.
Finally, recorded data were analyzed by SAS software ver. 9.1 and mean comparison based on Duncan multiple-range test was conducted by MSTAT-C software in the probability level of 5 percent.  This study results indicated that different levels of water irrigation had significant impact on all studied traits except harvest index. All studied traits except harvest index and 1000-grain weight had been significantly influenced by fertilizer treatments. Interaction of different irrigation regimes and fertilizer treatments had significant effect on the traits including plant height, the number of tillers per plant.  The maximum height of plant was observed in irrigation treatment of 80 percent of water requirement and the maximum number of tillers per plant was observed in irrigation treatment of 100 percent of water requirement. In addition, under the irrigation treatment of 100 percent water requirement and 100 percent water requirement, the maximum number of grains per plant and the maximum biological yield was observed.  The maximum grains per plant and biological yield was observed under animal manure and vermicompost treatments. Animal manure and vermicompost treatments had higher yield than control and chemical fertilizer treatments. In most of the studied traits, irrigation treatment of 100 percent water requirement was not significantly different from 80 percent water requirement irrigation. The authors acknowledge the financial support of the project (grant number 31441, 09 July 2014) Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran.

Introduction Wheat breeders have been constantly working to develop new varieties with improved productivity and yield and resistance to pests and diseases. These varieties are being released frequently and are replaced existing ones over and released on basis of their performance under open conditions. Intercropping has been widely applied to reduce soil erosion and water loss, restoring ecological balance, improving radiation and nutrient use efficiency, raising land equivalent rate and increasing economic benefits. The objective of the present work was to determine the effect of row intercropping of old and newwheat cultivars and canola as additive series on the yield, yield components, radiation use efficiency and land equivalent ratio under climatic conditions of Mashhad. Materials and Methods This experiment was conducted as factorial layout based on a randomized complete block design with three replications at the Agricultural Research Ftation of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran during two growing season of 2014-2015 and 2015-2016. The first and the second factors were wheat varieties (the old: Roshan and Tabasi and the new: Parsi and Sirvan) and intercropping ratios of wheat and canola in additive series (0:100, 25:100, 50:100, 75:100, 100:100 and 100:0), respectively. Investigated traits were seed, biological and straw yield of wheat and number of pods per plant, number of seeds per plant, 1000-seed weight, seed, biological and straw yield of canola, radiation use efficiency based on seed yield and total dry matter land equivalent ratio. For analysis of variance SAS 9.1 was used. All the means were compared according to least significant test (p≤0.05) Results and discussion Results showed that the highest wheat yield and yield components, except for 1000-seed weight, were obtained for under monoculture and by increasing the proportion of canola to 75%, significant decrease was observed in seed yield and biological yield of wheat. There was a significant increase in seed yield of new wheat varieties compared to Tabasi as an old variety while the biological yield was not affected by the variety. As compared to other wheat variety, in the presence of the new variety Sirvan, seed and biological yield and radiation use efficiency of canola were significantly increased. However, between different wheat varieties there was no significant difference in radiation use efficiency. The maximum land equivalent ratio (1.41) was calculated with 25% canola+100% wheat. Conclusion Results revealed that yield of wheat and canola were significantly affected by intercropping ratio and wheat varieties in which yield of both crops due to competition was reduced. However due to different criteria of these species associated with better use of water, radiation and nutrient resources when they are intercropped, land use efficiency was increased. New varieties of wheat seems to preform better when intercropped with canola. However, there was no significant differences in radiation use efficiency and land equivalent ratio between the old and the new wheat varieties. Acknowledgement This research (32693) was funded by Vice Chancellor for Research of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, which is hereby acknowledged.

 Intercropping is cultivation of two or more crops in a land in a growing season that the important goal of this is optimal use of growth resources and labors. The most important advanteges of intercropping is higher yield in a certain land by using the various traits such as canopy structure, the ability of root development, height, nutritional needs and efficient use of growth resources. The studies show that the responses of plant species were different in intercropping and monoculture cropping systems. The present research aimed to investigate the planting pattern and different levels of manure on competitive power and agronomic traits of garlic and spinach. This experiment was conducted as split plot based on completely randomized block design with three replications at the Agricultural Research Station, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, during growing season of 2011-2012. The treatments were manure rates at three levels (0, 10 and 20 ton.ha-1) in main plots and 6 cropping systems (garlic and spinach monocultures and garlic-spinach intercropping with 1:1, 2:2, 3:3 and 4:4 ratio) in sub plots. Studied traits were included in height, fresh and dry weight of spinach and garlic, Land Equivalent Ratio, Aggressivity Coefficient and Competition Ratio. The results indicated that with increasing manure level to 20 ton per hectare, spinach fresh weight increased, significantly but this trend wasn’t observed in spinach dry weight. Also with changing cropping pattern, dry and fresh weight of spinach was affected, significantly. The highest dry and fresh weight of spinach was observed in garlic and spinach intercropping with 4:4 ratio. The investigation of interaction effect of planting pattern and manure showed that the highest fresh and dry weight of spinach were obtained in garlic and spinach intercropping with 1:1 and 4:4 ratio under 20 ton per hectare manure, respectively. The lowest spinach dry weight was in garlic and spinach intercropping with 3:3 ratio under 20 ton per hectare manure. Garlic dry and fresh weight wasn’t affected by manure rates, but cropping pattern affected dry and fresh weight of garlic, significantly. The highest fresh and dry weight of garlic was obtained in garlic monoculture without manure.In studied intercropping systems, land equivalent ratio (LER) was more of one. The highest LER was obtained in intercropping with 3:3 ratio without manure Conclusions In general, the best treatment for Aggressivity Coefficient, Competition Ratio and Land Equivalent Ratio was obtained in garlic and spinach intercropping with 1:1 ratio and 20 ton per hectare manure.

Ecological footprint is an index based on the land area needed for basic requirements and also the waste disposal of an individual in a specific geographic location and usually calculated on the basis of area per capita which is normally global hectare (Gha) per capita. Total world ecological footprint for the year 2010 has been estimated to be 18.2 billion Gha with a per capita 2.7 Gha. Biocapacity is another concept which together with footprint sustainability of ecosystems means the whole area of a specific geographic region which has a proper biomass production and waste absorption capacity. Measurement of ecological footprint together with biocapacity provides useful information on the intensity of resource use and the status of environmental sustainability. Evaluation of footprint by national bodies has been emphasized more, rather than the international ones. Footprint for food production also called foodprint is the area required for food production for a population (energy required for transportation and processing is not consider). The purpose of present study was to evaluate production and consumption status of different groups of agricultural foods and to measure the foodprint in Iran. Calculation of biocapacity and ecological deficiency in the country with regards to different consumption pattern was other purpose of this study. Time trends of food and total ecological footprint, biocapacity and ecological deficit of Iran during 1990-2013 were analyzed and based on trend equation the value of these indices were predicted for 2025.
Data was collected for different group of agriculture foods from Ministry of Jihad Agriculture, Ministry of Commerce and also from other published data in official databases in the country.
The effect of the amount of consumption on foodprint was considered on the basis of the above scenarios for the population of the country in year 2050. Furthermore the effect of water and nitrogen use efficiency on foodprint was also considered on the bases of food production in the present pattern and in a condition where these efficiencies are enhanced by 20%. The balance between production and consumption in the future was calculated by Gini coefficient. Results indicate that food and total footprint were increased respectively, by 3.3 and 2.9% per year, during the study period and this trend would be led to 1.05 and 3.34 Gha/person for food and total footprint, respectively. Total biocapacity of the country in 2013 was estimated as 0.82 Gha/person which was lower than the value for world (1.8 Gha/person) and Middle East average (0.91 Gha/person). Croplands accounted for 47% of total biocapacity of the country while forests and rangelands contributed by 30%. During the study period, biocapacity showed a positive trend but with a slow slope toward leading to 0.85 Gha/person in 2025. Ecological deficit of the country (ecological footprint minus biocapacity) which was 0.7 Gha/person in 1990 has increased by 5.9% per year with a value of 1.9 Gha/person in 2013 and predicted to reach 2.5 Gha/person by 2025. The balance between consumption and national food production as well as footprint of food stuffs were analyzed under 4 scenarios based on different level of consumption of meat and dairy. In all scenarios of increase in consumption of animal products, the unbalanced relation of consumption/production was intensified and resulted in decreased self-sufficiency index and increased footprint of food stuffs. Foodprint for Iran is 0.88 Gha. For the different group of food the highest foodprint (0.43 Gha per person) is for animal products. Population growth together with increasing per capita income has changed food consumption pattern and hence the demand for more food has caused higher pressure on natural resources and more food to be imported. This is the case in most developing countries. Results showed that enhancement of resource use efficiency (water and nitrogen) by 20% higher than the current values could led to improvement of agricultural self-sufficiency and considerable reduction of footprint in all future scenarios. Our results showed that with increasing efficiency of resource use (water and nitrogen) foodprint can be reduced.
This research was funded by Vice Chancellor for Research of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, which is hereby acknowledged.