جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه « عصر آهن » در نشریات گروه « تاریخ »

Qareh Tepe in Sagzabad is the only Iron Age site in the Qazvin Plain that has been extensively excavated. Unfortunately, due to the destruction of the upper layers of this mound, the information from the end of the second and first millennia BC of the area is insufficient. A new cemetery, in the east of Qareh Tepe, was found in the archeological excavations during 2016. The graves in this cemetery belonged to the first half of the first millennium and the end of the second millennium BC. Since cemeteries are valuable archaeological contexts to study various social aspects, the finds from this new cemetery could provide valuable information on the social structure of the resident society in the area during the timeframe mentioned. According to the existing theoretical models about social evolution, the present study aimed to evaluate the archaeological findings and compare them with the information obtained from the Neo-Assyrian accounts. The results revealed the existence of a hierarchical society with the transmission of hereditary social status at least since the end of the second millennium BC in the area. Furthermore, the finds from the first half of the first millennium BC indicated evidence of the separation of the cemetery space, emphasis on genealogy, population growth, sizeable mud-brick buildings, extensive trans-regional relations, and the intensification of metal production in the area. These findings indicated the increasing social complexities at the beginning of the first millennium BC. In addition, in their accounts, some Neo-Assyrian kings mentioned a place called “Bit- Kapsi”; this place was probably in the Qazvin Plain. “Bit- Kapsi” was a kind of regional polity or chiefdom during the 8th century BC in the area. The archaeological evidence indicates increasing social complexities at the beginning of the first millennium BC in the area, which could be associated with the emergence of “Bit- Kapsi”.

Music is a type of human behavior that is very powerful in impact. Music should be considered the first tool of instinctual human expression. From the beginning of creation, man has used dance and song to describe his inner modes. The study of documents shows the high of music in ancient Iran, which has been effective in Iranian religious ceremonies. Music is a phenomenon that is part of the national identity and the basis of a society’s culture. One of the essential issues related to the position of women in prehistoric Iran is their role in music. The purpose of this study is to identify musical instruments in ancient times, primarily the tool discovered in the Iron Age cemetery of Gohar Tepe, and the importance of the role of women in music, dancing, and singing. The research hypothesis is that no such musical instrument has been discovered, according to the excavations and studies in the Iron Age sites of Mazandaran and Gilan. This study uses the analytical–experimental method and fieldwork. The results show this instrument which is similar to the clarinet, is a wind instrument and is one of the oldest musical instruments of ancient times. This musical instrument is unique and interesting, which consists of deer antlers and silver with seven nails riveted to each other. In addition to the musical instrument and this burial, a bronze mask, metal objects, pottery, and ornaments have been also discovered, showing women's high position in music in the Iron Age of Iran.

The beginning of iron using in construction of metal objects has always been one of the important topics in the archeology of Ancient Near East in late second millennium and the early first millennium B.C. In Iran, researching on this issue is not homogeneous for different regions and Ancient Elam is one of the regions that have received less attention. The city of Susa, one of the important centers of Elam, has played a prominent role in production of metal artifacts and transit of various metals to Mesopotamia, based on the material data and cuneiform sources. However, in various conducted researches, either this issue has been ignored or has not been studied independently with considering both types of material evidence and cuneiform texts; Therefore, in present study, an attempt has been made to get a general overview of the progress of iron using and making iron objects in Elam and the role of both material and textual sources in this issue by studying archeological records, cuneiform texts and researches conducted on both types of sources. The results of this research show that using iron in Elam in second millennium B.C and early first millennium B.C was very limited and it is only from the beginning of the Neo Elamite II period that we see its prevalence. The current research also points out that cuneiform documents, despite some limitations, can be used as supplement to cultural materials as they provide us the oldest evidence of an iron object in ancient Elam. In the interim, the administrative texts related to the late Neo Elamite from Susa (MDP 9) have special importance because they mention issues such as existence of blacksmith workshops and also the manufacture and delivery of various iron objects in Susa and its suburbs. Moreover, the comparison of the information obtained from both types of evidence about iron will clarify the shortcomings and capabilities of the material and textual sources.

The legend of Kava Ahangar tells the story of a blacksmith who rushes to the help of the mythical warrior Fereydon and defeats the demonic kingdom named Zahhak and disappears. There were many discussions about the origin of this myth for a long time; to the extent that some researchers thought that this mythological narrative was added to the text of the main myth of the battle with the dragon. With the expansion of the knowledge of comparative mythology, similar mythological narratives of Indo-European were investigated and the essence of the blacksmith's narrative was recovered with the help of a mythological hero in the battle with the dragon. This narrative similarity as well as lexical etymology confirmed the ancient origin of this myth, which seems that iron weapons were added to the legend of the battle with the dragon in the Iron Age. Based on this, this research investigates the impact of the Iron Age developments on the origin of the myth of Kava Ahangar. In this article, with the descriptive-analytical method and the analysis of the mythological texts of Indo-European peoples and other nations, the author argues that the myth of Kava Ahangar is an ancient narrative of the evolution of the battle of the storm god with the drought dragon, which was in the Iron Age. A social and ritual has occurred in many ancient tribes and nations, during which the blacksmith helps the storm gods in the battle with the dragon by making an iron weapon.

Shell, as the natural shell of some mollusks, has always interested humans. Some of these ‎species have been part of man's diet since the beginning of his cultural development. In contrast, others ‎have been used as natural utensils or as ornaments. Among the people, the characteristics of this ‎shell group are clarified based on their spatial analysis, which is often placed in religious ‎contexts such as shrines as special offerings and gifts or grave gifts with the deceased‏. ‏While in ‎some Far Eastern cultures, they have been used as money in some cases. The Surkh  Lori is one ‎of the key areas of the second millennium BC. It is located in western Iran's region behind the mountain ‎‎(Lorestan). It was first excavated by Erich Schmidt in 1938 and introduced as a ‎temple. Many of the objects found in this area are votive offerings made by the area's people ‎for the good of this Temple. Among these objects, at least 532 sea shells have been found. Their origin is determined according to their biological typology from the Persian Gulf to the Sea of ‎Oman. The abundance of shells such as Kowzak or Cowries indicates that this Temple belonged to a ‎female goddess, probably "Ninlil," because of the accompaniment of such shells in the context of ‎the first millennium BC; It is commonly reported in the graves of women and children.

Seals and seal impressions are important evidence for the economic, political, and social relationships of societies in the ancient world. By studying them, we can obtain specific information about the level and extent of the relationships between the ancient inhabitants of the site or region with its surrounding world. Previous discoveries in the region of central Zagros and especially in Kermanshah province indicate that seals have a long history. For example, in Tapeh Giyan, it goes back at least to the old chalcolithic and Bronze periods. Despite the importance of the findings of Chogha Maran, Dehsavar, and Tapeh Tyalineh, the number of known sites in the west of central Zagros which have a collection of seals and seal impressions are very small, and there still is not a clear view about the level of complexity of the ancient sites in the region, especially regarding the use of seals and seal impressions, nor are the technology and style of seal cutting in this region understood. In this article, the authors have tried to introduce the seals and seal impressions of Tapeh Kheibar of Ravansar, showing the importance of this site among the other sites of the region, and provide some evidence of several thousand years of using property tools in this place. The current collection of Tapeh Kheibar includes six stamp seals, four cylinder seals, and one seal impression, which are range from the chalcolithic to the Parthian period. The most important of these is a Kassite seal with a cuneiform inscription in the Sumerian language, which may have belonged to a high-ranking person in the Tapeh Kheibar in the Kassite period (second millennium BCE).

So far, the settlements of the Iron Age of Sarakhs plain have not been studied archaeologically, and on the other hand, the Iron Age of Plain Sarakhs represents the Yaz culture in the region and owes its name to the Yaz Hill area in southwestern Turkmenistan. Studies of the Iron Age culture of the Sarakhs Plain can reveal the basic information of this period and help to understand the general Iron Age of the Iranian plateau and the land of Turkmenistan. The purpose of this study, while identifying Iron Age settlements, is to analyze environmental factors to explain the patterns of Iron Age settlements in the Sarakhs plain. For this purpose, a field study was conducted in the plain and by studying the collected works and library studies. It was found that 16 sites have Iron Age artifacts. Some settlements are single-period and some have chronological sequences. The necessity of the present study is the unknown culture of the Iron Age of Sarakhs plain. Therefore, the identified Iron Age settlements of Sarakhs plain were analyzed from the perspective of environmental factors and their role in explaining settlement patterns. The output of maps and data of Iron Age settlements in Sarakhs plain showed that among the environmental factors influencing the determination of settlement patterns, Distance and proximity in the range of 300 to 900 meters above sea level, Location of settlements along the rivers of Sarakhs plain (linear settlement pattern) and large urban or rural centers (Mir Ahmad and Bazangan) up to 65 hectares (central location), Communication routes (communication route of Greater Khorasan in the Iron Age), In the formation and distribution of settlements have been more influential than other environmental factors. One of the most important results of the present archaeological study, Identifying the Iron Age settlements represents the culture of Yazd Plain Sarakhs, which will be used to measure the distribution of Iron Age settlements in this area to draw a very accurate and comprehensive perspective for understanding the social life of the people of that period.

The concentration of activities and sites Iron Age excavations carried out in Iran in the quarter-northwest Iran. It covers the west, northwest, north of the center, and the west bank of the Caspian Sea. The important point is that the chronological basis of the Iron Age in Iran is also based on the excavation of several sites in a small part of the northwest and its extension to the whole of Iran. Thus we see the Iron Age archaeological activities at the eastern part of Iran and especially North East is very unknown. Iran has long been the entry point for people without a nomadic component steppes of northeastern North Asia region is the Iranian plateau. According to written sources the oldest nations that have entered the Iranian plateau, known as the Indo-Iranian or Aryan tribes from the steppes of northern Asia to the south and in the land of the Pamir Mountains to Anatolia widely dispersed. Many scholars consider the gradual movement of these tribes to be from the second millennium. A period that is almost synonymous with the Iron Age in the region. But our knowledge of the Iron Age northeastern Iran today virtually all North Khorasan Province and the northern part of Khorasan Razavi province involved is negligible. This paper is based on the latest research picture of the Iron Age northeastern part of the country, with emphasis on the upper basin Atrak be provided. According to the study and identification carried out in this basin, the Iron Age of the upper Atrak basin is part of the Yaz 1 culture.

The study of architecture and architectural decorations is one of the most basic archaeological tools for the recognition of ancient cultures and societies. However, despite its importance as the prologue of Iranian architecture in the historical period (i.e., Median and Persian architecture), Iranian Iron Age architecture has been studied less than it deserves. Painted bricks and tiles— which are found across different regions of Iran, e.g., the Northwest, Luristan, and the Central Plateau at ancient sites such as Hasanlu, Qalaichi, Rabat, Baba Jan, Qoli Darvish, Sialk, Shamshirgah, and Gholam Tape—are among the most significant elements of Iron Age architecture, about which our knowledge has grown considerably over the last few decades. The present article deals with the descriptions of the aforementioned bricks and their typology. We try to show how much these bricks have been influenced by the art of neighboring nations. This article also aims to indicate the function of these painted bricks, and by extension, the function of the buildings on which these bricks are adorned. The research results suggest that these bricks can be divided into three distinct categories that are consistent with a triple political and geographical division of Iran during the first half of the first millennium BCE. The research also shows that despite the fact that these bricks have been influenced by the art of neighboring regions, they are indigenous and have been made by native artisans. It seems that the painted bricks of the Iranian Iron Age are mostly used in religious buildings and temples of this time.

Recently archaeological excavations in the eastern cemetery of Qara tepe, Sagzābād, have uncovered graves related to the late second millennium and the first half of the first millennium B.C. (Iron ages 2 and 3). Thankfully, with the excavation of this cemetery, we have obtained some findings based on which we can reconstruct part of the social aspects of the life of the societies of the first millennium BC in the region. Graves are one of the most important archaeological contexts for discovering prestige goods. There are many questions and ambiguities in the field of prestige goods, changes in their type and value over time, and how they were distributed in the region in the Iron Ages 2 and 3. Given the theoretical discussions raised about prestige and prestige goods and the results of the excavations in this cemetery, finds such as sea shells, decorative beads made of carnelian and antimony, cylindrical seals of the neo-Assyrian style, cylindrical seals with geometric designs, and iron ornaments and tools can be considered as prestige goods. The evidence of this cemetery indicates the elites' efforts in the first millennium B.C. to maintain their social prestige by achieving new categories of prestige goods. As a sign of connection and interaction with distant lands, these goods could play an influential role in maintaining and developing elites' prestige and social status. Moreover, the finds of this cemetery indicate the efforts of some lower ranks of the society to increase their social prestige and use its advantages.

In the archaeological research of the Iron Age of Iran, the study of human-environment interaction has been largely neglected. Besides, due to the occurrence of climatic oscillations over the cultural period, conducting research with this approach seems necessary. The biggest limitation of this study was the shortage of absolute datings and reliable relative chronologies for most Iranian Iron Age sites. In addition, the studied sites, which are mainly cemeteries, do not allow for cultural stratification. In this research, the abundance and spatial distribution of the Iron Age cemeteries and settlements excavated and surveyed in the North Central, North, Northwest, and West regions of Iran are analyzed from the perspective of climate change. Paleoclimate researches in Southwest Asia indicate the intensification of arid climatic conditions during the Iron Age II (1250-800 BC). Based on the analysis, it is probable that the decrease of population in some regions and the displacement of human communities, as well as the subsistence system relying on mainly pastoral-nomadic during the Iron Age, were related to arid climatic events.

The Iron Age in the Central Zagros is contemporaneous by Assyrians, Kassite’s states, and other tribes and their presence in this area.  Archaeological studies of this period, almost regardless of the presence of these States or groups, have only studied graveyards and burial methods and other findings from them. However, archaeological evidence and reliefs obtained from this area along with Assyrian cuneiform tablets show the strong presence of Assyrians and Kassites. However, this issue has received less attention in Iron Age studies, The Aseman-Abad intermountain plain is no exception. Despite being difficult to cross and its small area, this area is significant in terms of archaeological data of this period, because it is the link between the northern regions to southern regions of Central Zagros. In the survey of this area, several graveyards’ belonging to the Iron Age I-III were identified and surveyed. The study of the findings and works of these graveyard’s shows that they belong to semi-nomadic or nomadic groups that have been created near or along the banks of Aseman-Abad Rivers. The study, analysis, and comparison of the architecture of the tombs as well as the surface pottery of these graveyard’s, in addition to clarifying the situation of this region in the Iron Age, shows this era with other areas of the Central Zagros have a relationship and homogeneity. On the other hand, some pottery evidence indicates the presence of Kassite in this area after returning from Mesopotamia.

Archaeological studies in the region of Qara Dagh (or Arasbaran) are of particular importance due to the fact that this region is located in the area between East-West (Iranian) Azerbaijan and Iran-Anatolian Plateau, as well as north to south of Caucasus-Iran. Archaeological activities in Qara Dagh are often aimed at conducting systematic research to explain the socio-political situations, investigate the cultural-technological currents and changes, explore the connecting and commercial routes of Northern region of Azerbaijan during the Bronze and Iron ages, outline the long-term scientific landscape, and also to understand the archaeological status of the region, relying on field and laboratory methods. The first season of this project, in 2017, dealt with identification of the Bronze and Iron Age sites of Varzeqan city. During the present survey, have been recorded 143 sites from the early Bronze Age to the Iron Age III in the region; and from the most important results of this survey, the changes recorded during the transitions from each period to the next period in relation to demographic changes, settlement patterns and location selecting, evaluating the landscape and natural resources in order to be aware of food networks and economic systems, studying the ecology of the region, livelihood approaches and burial methods can be mentioned. According to this evidence, settlements have been very limited in the region during the early Bronze Age. With the collapse of semi-farmer communities in the early Bronze Age, nomadic life was limitedly formed in the middle of the Bronze Age. In the late of Middle Bronze Age, once again, with the formation of sedentary communities, an increase in the population of the region and the emergence of social complexities are seen during the late Bronze Age to the Iron Age II, followed by the establishment of a primitive class society which was formed under the administration of local small rulers

In recent years, an increasing number of archaeological investigations have produced new evidence for the prehistoric development (both in chronology and settlement patterns) in the westernmost provinces of Iran. Prior to the commencement of the MPAP an earlier survey in the Marivan region had been carried out by the Department of Archaeology at Bu Ali Sina University in Hamadan (Iran). Research focused on the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods and, unfortunately, evidence from the Chalcolithic periods is yet to be published. The Marivan Plain Survey Project, by Morteza Zamani Dadaneh from the University of Kurdistan, Kurdish Studies Institute, conducted a first season of systematic survey for four weeks in the summer of 2018. The goal of MPAP is to reassess previous survey work in the region. Archaeological project of Marivan plain in 2018 resulted in identifying 60 sites from Neolithic to more recent time. Among identified sites: 1 site dating back to PPN Neolithic, 14 site to chalcolithic period (early, middle and late), 2 site to Bronze Age probably, 11 site to Iron Age, 28 site to historic (Parthian) period and 12 site to Islamic era. Regarding the settlement pattern of prehistoric sites (Neolithic and chalcolithic period), it become clear that all prehistoric sites distributed in the northern and southern shore of Zeribar lake. Most probably such pattern influenced from Zeribar sea level and access to the fertilized agricultural lands in this area in Neolithic and chalcolithic times. But the distribution pattern of historic and Islamic sites is somewhat different from prehistoric pattern and is similar to pattern of nowadays residential areas. Current and historic/Islamic residential area placed close to permanent water sources in the narrow valleys surrounded the Zeribar lake. Of course, part of the Marivan Plain is located in the east of the current Marivan City, which is far from Zarivar Lake, and dispersed settlements in this section formed on the edge of the main river, one of the branches of the Garan River

Interpretation of human’s old behaviors in the past and paying attention to complex and interactive processes between humans and the environment to be understood in terms of their dependence on the components of the natural and ecological environment is the center of modern archaeology’s attention.  Archaeological surveys and analysis of settlement patterns are considered well-known methods in archaeology to help identify these interactive processes.With the studies of the Archaeological Board of the University of Pennsylvania on Hasanlu Hill and the Sandus Plain, the southern basin of Lake Urmia became one of the most important archaeological sites and a basis for chronology in northwestern Iran. Meanwhile, Piranshahr plain on one hand due to its proximity toHasanlu area in the north and Rabat area in the south and on the other hand due to the neighborhood of this area with great powers such as Assyria, Urartu and Mana in the first half of the first millennium BC, Is one of the important areas in terms of archaeological studies of the Iron Age in northwestern Iran. This study examined the Piranshahr plain, assuming that the Iron Age settlements of the Piranshahr plain follow a specific settlement pattern. In this research, using field and library studies and geographical analysis models, a methodical and appropriate interpretation of the distribution of Iron Age areas and the first millennium BCPiranshahr plain was presented. Studies have shown that the Iron Age settlements in the region are most affected by two geographical factors, altitude from sea surface and access to rivers, and this has led to the creation of linear networks in the course of rivers resulting to a suitable choice of height relating to the plain. It was also found that the Iron Age settlements of this plain, following the shape of the roughness and natural geography of the region in the first half of the first millennium BC, by creating a specific settlement hierarchy, tended to form an independent local political unit. The existence of this political unit in modern Assyrian writings as Xubuskie could be identified.