central zagros

The Chalcolithic period is one of the significant prehistoric phases in Iran, emerging as a continuation of Neolithic developments. The Central Zagros, particularly the Eslamabad-e Gharb Plain in western Kermanshah, contains numerous Chalcolithic settlements. Despite the cultural richness of this region during the Chalcolithic, no systematic study has been conducted to clarify the status of its settlements from this period. This research seeks to answer the following questions: What were the settlement patterns of the Eslamabad-e Gharb Plain during the Chalcolithic? How can the changes in settlement patterns across the Early, Middle, and Late Chalcolithic phases be analyzed? It appears that several factors, including water resources, elevation above the plain, and communication routes, influenced the formation of settlements in this region during the Chalcolithic. Surveys and studies conducted in this plain have identified 65 archaeological sites associated with the Chalcolithic period. Some of these sites contain evidence from all three phases: Early, Middle, and Late Chalcolithic. The spatial data collected in this study were analyzed using Geographic Information System (GIS) methodologies and processed in ArcGIS software. The analysis was based on the distance of each settlement from the nearest river or water source, its elevation relative to the Islamabad Plain, and other influential factors. All sites were incorporated into analytical maps, which were generated for each of the three Chalcolithic phases in the Islamabad Plain.

Prehistoric Kurdistan remains unknown to its neighbors in western Iran. One of these prehistoric periods, which has been much loved by researchers, is the Bronze Age, especially in the Middle Ages. Looking at the map and geographical location of the Kurdistan region in western Iran, we find that this region is located between the two major cultural studies of the Bronze Age studies of western Iran, namely the culture called Urmia ware pottery and Khabur pottery in the north and Godin III pottery in the south. The core of the distribution of Godin III culture belongs to the Central Zagros and some extent to the southwest of the Zagros. Despite the identification of many areas within the core of these basins, the number of identified areas outside of them, especially the Godin III Basin, is very small and inconsistent. The pottery of Godin III ware obtained from recent studies on Tepe Dinar of Vey Nesar in Qorveh Plain shows that the distribution basin of these cultures, and especially Godin III culture, cannot be limited to nuclear areas. Based on the innovations of Tepe Dinar, the distribution of this culture can be extended beyond its main core from the central and southwestern regions of Zagros to the eastern regions of Kurdistan in the Qorveh plain.

The Chalcolithic period in the Northwest and Central Zagros region commenced around 5500 BC and is recognized as a significant prehistoric era in Iran. Spanning from 5500 to 3000 BC, this period exhibited distinct characteristics when compared to the preceding Neolithic Period. The relatively simple rural communities that emerged during the Neolithic underwent substantial development, evolving into more complex societies during the Chalcolithic. Notable settlements from this era include Qeshlaq and Sufian, located within the study area. The onset of the fifth millennium BC is associated with Dalma culture, which is regarded as one of the most intricate prehistoric cultural traditions due to its extensive cultural reach. Despite extensive research aimed at elucidating the cultural dynamics of the Dalma across various locations, this tradition remains one of the most enigmatic archaeological phenomena, not only in the Northwest region of Iranian Plateau but also in Central Zagros, the Caucasus, and Anatolia. This raises numerous inquiries, particularly regarding the cultural connections of the inhabitants of the Caucasus, Northwest, and Central Zagros with adjacent regions. This article aims to explore and analyze the cultural landscape of the early fifth millennium BC, focusing on the interrelations among the areas influenced by the Dalma culture through an examination of cultural artifacts.

Despite the extensive excavations and research in the eastern part of the Fertile Crescent, questions remain regarding the Neolithization process and the role of the Zagros region in these dynamics. Tappeh Qazānchi, is located at 1323 m.a.s.l. to the northwest of the city of Kermanshah and lies close to the Razavar river, was selected for archaeological research due to the presence of a long chronological sequence. The project aimed to study the Early Neolithic societies’ material culture, residential practices, subsistence economy and the environmental conditions of the site. mechanized agricultural practices over the past five decades have damaged the site, revealing a section (approximately one hundred meters long on the northern part of the mound) of cultural sequences from the early Holocene period. The site was sounded during the winter of 2019 to identify the cultural sequences, determine the core area and buffer zone. The extent of the core area was estimated to be approximately two hectares. The stratigraphy was carried out in the section of the northern wall in three trenches. The results indicate that the lower levels contain a Pre-Pottery Neolithic sequence and the upper levels of the site belong to the Late Chalcolithic and Middle Bronze Age periods. Archaeological, and high-resolution bio- and geoarchaeological investigations (archaeobotany, archaeozoology, micromorphology, and sedimentology) reveal that the Holocene environment around the site was characterized by small-scale permanently waterlogged areas or periodically flooded zones. During the Middle Bronze Age, Tappeh Qazānchi is contemporaneous with Chogha Maran (upper phase) and Godin Tepe (Period III), and during the Late Chalcolithic with Siahbid (middle and late phases), Chogha Maran and Godin Tepe (Period IX). The Pre-Pottery Neolithic phases at Qazānchi were contemporaneous with several other early Holocene settlements of the Zagros, including Sheikh-e Abad, East Chia Sabz, Kelek Asad Morad, and Chogha Golan.

The San Rossam crypt is located in the Hozmanvand Gorge, on the west bank of the Jezman River, on the nomadic route that passes through this gorge. This nomadic route connects the northern plains, namely Halashi and Mayasht (Mahidasht), with the southern areas, namely Holeylan and neighboring areas, and is of strategic importance. San Rossam is a type of free crypt. This crypt has a rectangular cube shape and its entrance is facing north. The Jezman River flows from the south and behind it. This issue, along with other factors, such as the fact that it was created next to the nomadic route, makes its use as a tomb doubtful. According to its location, it probably has had other functions. Possibly, this crypt was a place for guarding, resting (like Taq-e Gara), and grain storage, or according to local narratives, it was a religious and ritual place. Some details of this crypt, such as the entrance shape, the cradle arch, and the construction method, are similar to some crypts. Besides, the method of removing the loose parts of the rock on the sides of the cellar is similar to the methods of separating stone blocks in the mines of this area and neighboring areas. These characteristics attribute the age of this crypt to the second half of the Parthian period.

Silakhor plain in the north of Lorestan is one of the important areas of Central Zagros, which has many settlements related to the chalcolithic age. Investigations and studies conducted in this plain have so far shown 80 ancient sites related to the chalcolithic age. The data of this research was taken from the survey and identification that took place in 2005 in the Silakhor plain, as well as re-examination and supplementary survey of the authors from this. In this research, 51 representative pottery samples from the chalcolithic age pottery in the area of this site have been studied typologically. In this research an attempt has been made to answer the question that how the typological comparison of chalcolithic age pottery of Silakhor plain can be effective in regulating the chronology of the region. The typology and comparisons made in relation to the pottery of this period in the Silakhor plain show that the common pottery cultures of the chalcolithic age in this area are affected by the developments in the northern regions of Garin-Kouh and Sefid-Kouh (Kangavar Vally). Therefore, the chronology of Kangavar Vally in the chalcolithic can be extended to the Silakhor plain as well as on other hand, the typology of pottery types in this research can be effective in understanding the cultures late chalcolithic period and in the Bronze Age. The typological similarities of the chalcolithic pottery of the Silakhor plain with the pottery of the Godin III period show the chalcolithic and, consequently, the Bronze Age. After studies conducted on the collected pottery, 51 pottery samples, which were more representative, were separated and studied further. In this regard, we have tried to present at least one example of each pottery sample in this article. The collected samples represent that early, middle and late periods of the chalcolithic age in the Silakhor plain.

The Hassuna culture belongs to the late Neolithic era, which spans the period of 6000-5300 BC, and is considered as one of the first village-dwelling cultures in Zagros. After the discovery and exploration of Hassuna hill in the north of Mesopotamia, due to the importance of the findings, this culture was considered as an indicator for the early rural settlement of Zagros. So far, evidence of the Hasuna culture has been obtained in the northwest and recently in the east of Zagros, which shows the wide spread of this culture. However, no evidence of Hasuna has been found in central Zagros, especially in its western regions. In the fall of 1400, a rescue survey of the Havasan dam area of Sarpol Zahab city was carried out under the supervision of Nasser Aminikhah. This research pursued various goals, one of the most important of which was to study the possible cultural interactions of the region with neighboring regions, especially Mesopotamia. One of the distinctive aspects of Hassuna culture is a type of pottery known as "peeling tray", which was obtained for the first time from layer 2 of Hassuna hill. The existence of peeling tray fragments on the observation hill answered our question about the existence of the connection between Zagros and Mesopotamia in one of the most important historical periods. In this article, in addition to introducing the cultural materials of Tepe Nazargah, we have also discussed the reasons for the importance of the area under investigation.

The Iron Age in the Central Zagros is contemporaneous by Assyrians, Kassite’s states, and other tribes and their presence in this area.  Archaeological studies of this period, almost regardless of the presence of these States or groups, have only studied graveyards and burial methods and other findings from them. However, archaeological evidence and reliefs obtained from this area along with Assyrian cuneiform tablets show the strong presence of Assyrians and Kassites. However, this issue has received less attention in Iron Age studies, The Aseman-Abad intermountain plain is no exception. Despite being difficult to cross and its small area, this area is significant in terms of archaeological data of this period, because it is the link between the northern regions to southern regions of Central Zagros. In the survey of this area, several graveyards’ belonging to the Iron Age I-III were identified and surveyed. The study of the findings and works of these graveyard’s shows that they belong to semi-nomadic or nomadic groups that have been created near or along the banks of Aseman-Abad Rivers. The study, analysis, and comparison of the architecture of the tombs as well as the surface pottery of these graveyard’s, in addition to clarifying the situation of this region in the Iron Age, shows this era with other areas of the Central Zagros have a relationship and homogeneity. On the other hand, some pottery evidence indicates the presence of Kassite in this area after returning from Mesopotamia.

In this article, by analyzing the research activities conducted in the Central Zagros region in the Iron Age, the shortcomings, contradictions, questions and theories have been expressed, and in addition to presenting the general framework of previous researches, they have been criticized and analyzed. For this purpose, past and current published activities as well as some unpublished reports have been considered. This can be useful in identifying future research priorities. The transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in the Central Zagros is largely unknown, and in archaeological excavations in this area, due to lack of accurate stratigraphic excavations, terms such as Iron Age I, II and III cannot be used for its different areas. Therefore, in this article, the general term of the Early Iron Age for Iron Age I and II is used.The Central Zagros region has long been interesting to archaeologists. The French geologist Jacques de Morgan visited the Luristan region in the 19th century and identified many sites. Ernst Herzfeld in the early years of the twentieth century surveyed many areas of the Zagros region and identified Tepe Giyan in the county of Nehavand. This site was later excavated by G. Contenau and R. Ghirshman. Stein conducted archaeological research in Luristan and excavated several Iron Age tombs in Hulailan and Badawar. Almost at the same time as Stein, the Holmes expedition was one of the teams that conducted archaeological studies in the Luristan region under Schmidt’s direction. In 1934 and 1935, he conducted archaeological surveys and excavations in Luristan, and in 1938, he excavated Surkh Dum for three weeks; this site is highly important for reasons such as being a settlement land and having hundreds of different objects. Sites such as Kamtarlan, Chigha Sabz and Surkh Dum were excavated during performing this research. A review of the research background conducted in the Central Zagros region indicates that the excavations were scattered and non-purposeful and at first, more attention was paid to objects. In the early studies of the Iron Age, there was no definite plan, and most of the information obtained was based on individual, and in some cases, incidental research. The lack of necessary standards in excavations has made the problem more complex. Some of the excavations were not fully published or were later conducted by others. These problems are observed in some sites such as Tang-i Hamamlan, Surkh Dum, Cheshmeh Mahi, Tepe Giyan, Khatun Ban, Jameh Shuran, Tepe Guran, Chigha Sabz, and Kamtarlan. The Iron Age in the Central Zagros is often based on studies conducted in the 1970s and 1980s. These researches started with scattered studies, and projects related to Luristan bronzes were revived. Attempts to identify bronze makers as well as their stylistics, and their geographical origin were among the reasons for focusing on Iron Age activities in the Central Zagros. Previous scattered studies were mostly based on the stylistics of objects. In the following decades, Luristan bronzes were strongly considered, and the research teams of the Danish in Hulailan, the British team in Delfan (Dilfan), and the Belgian delegation in Pusht-i Kuh (Ilam Province) conducted extensive studies in this field. In the 1970s and 1980s, during the Godin project, valuable surveys and excavations were conducted, based on which a purposeful approach on chronology, settlement patterns, comparison to the Bronze Age, and connections of the Central Zagros to other regions were considered. Nevertheless, problems, such as separation of Iron Age I and II phases from each other, involvement of theories in the north of the Central Plateau in the Central Zagros region, and uncertainty of the period of some pottery traditions like Elamite/Kassite goblets are among its shortcomings. It should also be noted that this study did not cover all parts of the Central Zagros. Clare Goff's research in the 1970s considerably contributed to the understanding of the Iron Age in the Luristan region. The excavations of Louis Vanden Berghe in Pusht-i Kuh led to excavation of 11 Early Iron Age cemeteries, which have been thoroughly investigated in the chronology of objects obtained from this area. The Danish excavation in Tepe Guran had a good sequence, but the speed of the excavation and the lack of phasing have somewhat reduced the quality of the work.The timing of the use of iron metal, either as a decoration or as a public tool in the Central Zagros, has not been precisely determined. Among the findings of Iron Age I, currently there is no conclusive evidence, and the beginning of this phase is based more on pottery changes. In the studies of this area, the emergence of gray Gray Ware as well as Kassite/Elamite pottery and the end of Godin III pottery tradition is regarded as the beginning of the Iron Age. Lack of gray pottery in all areas of the Central Zagros as an indicator, contradiction at the beginning of the Iron Age, existence of different traditions such as the difference between Pish-i Kuh and Pusht-i Kuh, and lack of separation of pottery from settlement sites with cemeteries are among the challenges of this phase. This complexity is intensified in Iron Age II, so that it is not presently possible to distinguish between this phase and the previous phase. Although pottery has been introduced as Iron Age II, firstly, these samples exhibit regional differences and secondly, their start, end or phasing time is unknown. Among the types of gray pottery, no distinction can be made between Iron Age I and II pottery. Based on surveys and excavations of cemeteries in this period, we encounter a decrease in settlement or a change in settlements, and our evidence from this period is more incomplete than that of the previous period. In general, , lack of a chronological framework for its various regions, scattered surveys, lack of standards in excavations, or long delays in the publication of reports, are among the problems in the Central Zagros region. Additionally, inadequate recording, different interpretations, lack of separation of the different phases of the Iron Age, imposing theories on data, paying attention to objects and neglecting details like architecture, and not paying sufficient attention to the findings of northern Mesopotamia are other problems. Furthermore, uncertainty of the beginning of the Iron Age in different parts of the Central Zagros, lack of detailed study of economic, technological and political changes from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age, uncertainty of the impact of atmospheric factors on sites, ambiguity of the Central Zagros association with the Ilam civilization and lack of accurate excavation in areas covering all phases of this period are among the other problems. Moreover, insufficient knowledge of Luristan bronzes and unknown details such as manufacturers, production centers, accurate stylistics, and time of their production are other shortcomings of the Iron Age of the Central Zagros region. To start research activities in the Central Zagros region, considering these shortcomings, we need purposeful, long-term, question-based projects using interdisciplinary studies.

The Chalcolithic Age is one of the most important prehistoric periods in Iran. The transformations of this period in the Central Zagros have emerged in continuation of the Neolithic period.  One of the important areas of Central Zagros, which had many settlements related to the Chalcolithic era, is Silakhor plain in the north of Lorestan. Despite the cultural richness of the Silakhor plain during the Chalcolithic Age, no purposeful study has been conducted to clarify the Chalcolithic status of this area. In this regard, in order to clarify the settlement models of the Chalcolithic era of Silakhor plain, this study is presented, which is a summary of Ahmad Parviz’s archaeological studies and purposeful studies by the researchers, In the present study, the authors have tried to find the answer to the following questions: What were the settlement models of Silakhor plain in the Chalcolithic era? How can the changes of settlement models in the old, middle and new periods of the Chalcolithic era of Silakhor plain be analyzed? It seems that several factors including water resources, altitude of Silakhor plain and state’s roads have been effective in the formation of settlements in this area during the Chalcolithic age. Studies conducted in this plain so far have shown 80 ancient sites related to the Copper Stone Age. Some of these sites involve all three periods of old, middle and new Chalcolithic era. The spatial data collected in this research have been studied by GIS science studies method and implemented in ArcGIS 10.3 software. The basis of these studies is the distance of each settlement area from the nearest river and its altitude level from Silakhor plain. These maps have been implemented in all three periods of old, middle and new Chalcolithic Age of Silakhor plain. 

Tepe Qela Gap (also known as Ghala Gap ) in Azna: Lurestan, was excavated in 2009 aiming to establish the chronological sequence for the Azna Plain located eastern of Central Zagros, which had been scarcely  studied archaeologically until now. Considering the ecological diversity surrounding the plain, Tepe Qela Gap seems to have been an ideal place for the settlement of permanent villages but could also be suitable for nomadic and semi-nomadic people. The archaeozoological study of a large faunal assemblage, approximately 6500 items from this site, has provided evidence on the evolution of the subsistence economy of the site during various periods of occupation. The faunal spectra of Qela Gap from different periods, indicates that domesticated sheep/goat and cattle were the major source of animal resources. Among these domesticates it should be noted that cattle ratios are important and together with evidences of kill off patterns and osteological pathologies, we can hypothesise that these animals were used not only for food but also as draught animals, most probably, used for agricultural activities. This is a feature especially visible during the Bronze Age. The wild species, although not abundant (6%), were also part of the subsistence economy. Remains of wild sheep (Ovis orientalis), red deer (Cervus elaphus) or persian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica), boar (Sus scrofa) and gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa) have been found and indicate that different ecosystems were exploited. Another important feature of the Qela Gap fauna is the discovery of a horse (Equus caballus) bone within the Neolithic Levels. In parallel to the archaeozoological analysis, the archaeobotanical studies are on-going and will provide a more complete picture of the subsistence economy of the site during the 5000 years of occupation.

Sar-e Pol-e Zahab region in the western of Central Zagros is located between Central Zagros highland and Mesopotamia and Khorasan high road as only western- eastern road passes from that. In other hand this road after passing Sar-e Pol-e Zahab enter to Qasr-e Shirin and Mesopotamia low lands. Therefore, this region is very important in archaeological studies of Central Zagros and Mesopotamia. However, unfortunately, a few archaeological researches have been done in this region. The present study aims in representing a perspective about the Sar-e Pol-e Zahab during the Akkadian period as well as reviewing the written documents regarding the mutual relations and Akkadian cylinder seals discovered in archeological excavations in order to help the interpretations about the presence of Akkadians in this region. In this paper we will discuss about the  Mountainous Passage of western Central Zagros and Khorasan High Road on the Akkadian Seals and will explain the loucation of Sar-e Pol-e Zahab on the Akkadian Seals.

"Pottery" is one of the most important cultural materials - in terms of quantity and quality - among the findings of archaeological excavations on the hill behind Malayer Airport; The pottery of this area can be divided into two main groups: chickpea and red. Each group can be divided into two sub-categories: painted and simple, and in terms of construction quality, it can be divided into two groups: medium and rough. The pottery mix is ​​mainly vegetable and varies in grain size; So that on the surface and theme of some pottery - especially rough samples - depressions due to the presence of straw mixture. The pottery species with the straw mound combination behind the airport contain the characteristics of a pottery species known as "Cairo". This type of pottery with the remains of straw in the form of hollow and hollow in different levels of the vessel, is one of the cultural materials of pottery in some prehistoric areas - especially Mesopotamia and Iran. The purpose of this research is, in the first place, the typology and study of new Neolithic pottery on the hill behind the airport; And secondly, the identification and manner of cultural practices and the affinity of common pottery species in neighboring cultures. The method of the present study is based on comparative studies and with a descriptive-analytical approach, seeks to answer these questions: What are the types of pottery discovered on the hill behind the airport? Are the common types of hill pottery behind the indigenous-local airport or are they imported from neighboring cultures? And that pottery with the straw mound behind the airport can be considered the first steps in the emergence and construction of early Cairo pottery fromthe Neolithic period? It is assumed, considering the semi-unitary and nomadic nature of the communities present in the hill behind the airport and with regard to the diversity of pottery in the type of materials,

Castle Shah Jaghl or Jeqele can be considered one of the central Zagros mountain fortresses. The location of the castle is such that it has been settled on one of the communication routes of Boroujerd plain to Chqelvandi and Khorramabad region. From this castle remained little remnants of the architecture and the culture findings (such as the remains of the chambers, water storage, and stairs to access it and little remains of surface pottery on the floor and around the castle). The key questions are these cases: This castle belongs to which historical period? What is the nature of its use? The authors have used in this research from field activities (including survey, documentation and archaeological studies) as well as the library studies to provide scientific answers to the questions listed. The results of research, concerning the position of the castle, the location of the building and architectural remains indicates that the castle more than anything has provided security of communication – business roads and routes of region and also concerning the archaeological evidence (especially pottery), probably has been related to the Sassanid period

The Bronze Period is one of the least known periods in the prehistoric era of Iranian Plateau because of the presence of different cultures and the lack of systematic archeological research. One of the cultures attributed to this period is the Yanik Culture which was expanded in a vast area ranging from the northwest, west, and central parts of Iranian Plateau in the late 4th millennium BC to the late 3rd millennium BC. However, no detailed reports have been presented for this culture and its rise and fall inside the Iranian Plateau yet. Archeological investigations have confirmed the existence of such a culture in the central and western areas of the Iranian Plateau and the Central Zagros. During the archeological investigation from 2007 to 2008 in the west part of Markazi Province, nine large settlement areas related to the Yanik Culture were identified in the Qara-Chai Riverside. The vast area and high elevation of them (particularly the Aq Tappeh and the Sarsakhti Hill) can indicate the existence of settlement layers and dense architecture of this period. On the other hand, the investigation of the settlement areas’ location shows that, out of nine studied areas, three hills are located along the Qara-Chai River, at an altitude of 1700 m above sea level, and the other six along the catchments area of Qara-Chai, at an altitude of 2,100 m above sea level. The present study aims to explain the status of the Yanik Culture in the west part of Markazi Province as one of the connecting points of cultures at the center of Iranian Plateau with those in Central Zagros as well as investigating and analyzing the significance of settlements related to this period.

Harsin County is one of the central Zagros areas that have delicate geographical and biological conditions by having mountains, valleys, and lots of water sources to make settlements. Archeological discoveries and confirmations say this area has been a residential one in Parthian era. After researches and investigations of writers, 30 Parthian areas along with potteries and prominent data were analyzed. Sampling was done on a total of 350 potsherds, and as a result, 250 pieces belong to Parthian era and the rest belong to the former and later eras. In this article, information about Parthian potsherds was supplied and the conclusion was the resemblance of the cultural data of the area with the pottery samples of central Zagros, via the pottery typology and comparing studies. The criterion for identifying and classifying of potteries was based on Haerink’s ideology of classifying Parthian’s pottery. According to the studies, Parthian potteries of central Zagros include special types which were identified in majority of Parthian sits of the area. Studies show resemblance of pottery tradition in this area and many of central Zagros areas, and the cultural commercial relationships are the result of this resemblance. Harsin county is no different, so that it`s potteries resembled to most of the central Zagros’s. The prominent pottery types of the area in Parthian era can be classified in four groups of simple, engraved, enameled and clincky.

Gavroud mountain valleys plain in the east of central Zagros with an area about 985 km2 is located in the northeast of Sonqor and due to favorable environmental condition has embed numeral settlements in chalcolithic periods. The cultural relationships in this plain were revealed by potteries from regional cultures including Godin, She-Gabi and Dalma. Also this evidence indicates a parallel and convergence evolution in chalcolithic culture of the study area with central Zagros. This study investigates affecting environmental variables related to settlement patterns. Results revealed that settlement site selection in Gavroud plain in chalcolitic eras was affected by bioclimatic and environmental conditions and land use capability. It could be mentioned that high density of water bodies such as springs and streams flowing in mountain valleys provide suitable conditions for development of chalcolithic cultures. Also it is worth noting that the penetration of Dalma culture through the plain indicates the high potential of the area to provide human requirements and to formulate ultra-regional relationships.