جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه « فرآوری حرارتی » در نشریات گروه « علوم دام »

During the past decades, rapeseed production, including canola varieties, has surpassed peanut, sunflower, and even cottonseed in production, and ranks second among oilseed crops worldwide. Due to its drought endurance, canola may be the preferable grain for cultivation in several locations of Iran. Canola seed (CS) is an economic feed ingredient containing well-balanced protein (19 to 22%) and a high oil content, up to 45% in some cases. Apart from the oil content of CS, its concentration of dietary fiber, glucosinolates, and tannins are of concern. Canola has less glucosinolates and erucic acid than rapeseed. It, resulting in a higher level of vital nutrients and higher nutrient density. The nutrient composition and presence of anti-nutritional factors in CS may also affect its quality and feeding value for poultry. However, the presence of some glucosinolates, erucic acid, and other undesirable compounds such as phytates, polyphenols, and soluble non-starch polysaccharides (NSPs) may reduce nutrient digestibility and performance of the chickens. Heat process affects the rate of protein denaturation, starch gelatinization, digestive enzymes accessibility, bacterial counts and toxin degradation of feed. On the other hand, starch gelatinization by heat processing may increase amylase effects to break the chains of amylose and amylopectin, which in turn increases the digestibility of less digestible carbohydrates, improves metabolizable energy and digestibility of amino acids in beans, soybeans, peas and canola. Some concerns have been raised about the inclusion levels of CS in broiler diets. This experiment was carried out to investigate the effect of processing method on apparent metabolizable energy (AME), apparent metabolizable energy corrected for nitrogen (AMEn), apparent dry matter digestibility (ADMD), and apparent nutrients digestibility (and) of CS (Nafis variety) in broiler chickens.
This study was designed to determine the nutrient digestibility and, AMEn value of crud and heat processed CS. The CS used in this research was of the Nafis variety, which was sourced from the Astan Quds Razavi farm, Mashhad, Iran. The obtained CS sample was divided to three equal subsamples. One part was unprocessed, second part was micronized; one hour before processing CS was moistened by 20% of the weight, and then placed in a single layer on a vibrating conveyor belt under the infrared emission source at a speed of 6.25 cm/s until the surface temperature of the grain should reach 130○C, and third part super-conditioned under humidity of 16% and temperature of 75-85○C for 3-4 minutes. A total of 48, day-old Ross 308 male broiler chicks was obtained from a commercial hatchery. Chicks were reared and housed in battery brooders in a room. From day one to 10 and 11 to 15, chicks had ad libitum access to conventional corn-soybean meal starter and grower diets, respectively, to meet the nutrient specification of the strain as recommended by Ross 308 manual. A common corn-soybean meal diet was formulated to serve as the reference diet to meet or exceed the nutrient requirements of broiler chicks as described for the Ross 308. The CS samples (row, micronized, and super-conditioning) were incorporated into the reference diet at a 40% inclusion rate (60% reference diet and 40% CS). The digestion trial included a 4-day preliminary period in 16–19d of age, followed by 4 days of recorded total feed consumption and excreta collection. The feed was provided ad libitum during the preliminary and the collection period. During the collection period (20-23d of age) total feed intake was measured, and excreta from each cage were collected twice a day, pooled, and kept frozen at -20oC until subsequent analyses. The excreta samples were oven-dried at 60○C for 72 hours to determine dry matter content. The dried excreta and diet samples were ground through 20 mesh screens, and nutrient content was determined according to (AOAC, 2000). The gross energy of the dried excreta and diet samples was measured with Bomb-calorimeter (Model 1266, PARR). The apparent nutrients digestibility, AME and AMEn of the reference and test diets were determined. Accordingly, apparent nutrients digestibility, AME and AMEn of the CS was calculated as: ”.
The average of dry matter, crude protein, ether extract, fiber, ash, and gross energy for CS were 96.20, 17.70, 46.60, 6.00, 4.11%, and 7137 kcal/kg, respectively. The apparent digestibility of dry matter, crude protein, crude fat and AMEn for raw CS in broiler chickens were 54.28±1.19%, 69.42±1.13%, 77.1±1.32%, and 4673±268 kcal/kg of dry matter. Processing of canola by micronization and super-conditioning method numerically increased the dry matter content of CS by 2.46% and 0.88%, respectively. Crude fat and crude protein content also changed with a similar trend to dry matter content. The effect of canola processing on AME and AMEn in broilers was not significantly (P> 0.05). Micronizing process of CS increased ADMD and AMEn values of 7.47% and 117 kcal/kg than non-processed seed, respectively. Super-conditioning process was less effective than micronization on improving CS nutrient digestibility and AMEn values.
The outcomes of the present study showed that spit non-significant effect of heat processing on energy value and nutrients digestibility of CS (Nafis variety) that might be due to better tolerance of chickens fed recent varieties of CS. However, the change in nutrients digestibility and AMEn values of CS with processing by super- conditioning method was poor, a trend of improving nutrient digestibility and AMEn values were seen in micronize process. More research is needed to clarify the response of the chickens when CS in the raw, micronized or conditioned forms.

Providing the energy and protein in the diet of livestock, due to the high cost of its sources makes the highest cost of feed. Therefore, new and cheap domestic resources should be used in order to reduce costs and independency. Lathyrus sativus as a source of protein has been used in ruminants’ diet and because of similar amino acids profile to soybean meal can be used instead of soybean meal in ruminants’ diet. The protein content of Lathyrus sativus is 25.6-35.9 % of its dray matter. It is also reported that heat-processed soybeans are used as an important source of protein and energy in ruminants because heating reduces the breakdown of protein in the rumen and the passage of essential amino acids into the intestine (5). On the other hand, the reduction of anti-nutrients due to heat treatment, especially extrusion in soybean, has been reported in several studies. There is limited information about the effect of heat-processing on the nutritional value of Lathyrus sativus. The purpose of this experiment was to investigate the chemical composition, anti-nutrients, extent and rate of gas production and protein digestibility of Lathyrus sativus treated with different heat-processing by in vitro and in situ experiments.

The Lathyrus sativus seed were processed by 1) Autoclave at 120 ˚C, 2) Oven at 100 ˚C, 3) Extruding at 110 ˚C, 4) Roasting on direct heat, 5) Furnace at 120 ˚C and 6) Furnace at 200 ˚C. Chemical composition including dry matter, organic matter, crude protein, crude fat, calcium and phosphorus was performed using AOAC methods. Tannin and total phenolic compounds were meseared by Folin and Ciocalteu (12). Extent and rate of gas production were done based on Menk and Stingas. Mobile nylon bag technique was applied for determination of protein digestibility in the romen and intestine. Data were analyzed using GLM procedure of SAS using a completely randomized design with 5 replications.

Dry matter, ash, crude protein, crude energy, crude fat, calcium and phosphorus were not affected by different processing methods (P <0.05). However the amount of acid detergent fiber (ADF) and natural detergent fiber (NDF) with heat processing methods was significantly lower than non-processing method (P <0.05). Autoclaving and extrusion of Lathyrus sativus reduced the amount of phenolic compounds compared to the control (P <0.05). In addition, the furnace at 120 ° C and roasting even more than autoclaving and extrusion reduced the total phenolic compounds. The amount of gas production during various hours and its rate were significantly affected by the different processing procedures (P<0.05). At the initial hours (2 and 8 h) of incubation, the amount of gas produced in Lathyrus sativus unprocessed and processed in oven 100 ˚C was higher than autoclave 120 ˚C, furnace 120 ˚C, and roasted seeds. Extruded seeds were reduced gas production in initial hours than any other processed methods except those put in the furnace 200 ˚C. The Lathyrus sativus placed in 200 ˚C furnace severely diminished gas production of the incubation at primary hours. The extruded Lathyrus sativus showed higher gas at the 12th and 24th hours of incubation compared with primary hours. This trend continued up to the 96th hour of incubation. The results of gas production had conformity with rumen and intestine digestibility. It seems that the steam pressure in extrude and autoclave process can influence Lathyrus sativus fermentation. This effect in extrude process was higher than autoclave. The rumen and intestine dry matter and protein digestibility in extruded process was higher than the others. Lathyrus sativus with no process, at oven 100 ˚C and furnace 200 ˚C were shown equal dry matter and protein digestibility. The findings of the present research revealed that extruding, autoclaving and roasting procedures lead to increase of dry matter through decreasing water content and that it had no significant effect on other chemical composition. Also, the findings showed that place of Lathyrus sativus in furnace 200 ˚C decreased ADF and NDF Lathyrus sativus which might be due to the removal of some of the shells in this processing. Consequently, the process of extruding, autoclaving and roasting reduced the rapid part degradation of dry matter and protein of Lathyrus sativus and caused the slow part of degradation to increase, which is in consistent to other researcher about increasing of intestine protein digestibility in extruded and roasted soybean seed.

Extruded, autoclaved and roasted Lathyrus sativus with the reduction of the amount of ruminal disappearance and the increase of the post ruminal digestibility of dry matter and crude protein transferred the place of the digestion of protein from the rumen to the small intestines. In furnace 200 ˚C, due to the intense denaturation of the protein or the formation of a protein-carbohydrate complex, the digestibility of dry matter and crude protein of Lathyrus sativus in the rumen and intestine was reduced. In addition, the results of our studies in confirming the studies of others reduced the concentration of total tannin and total phenolic compounds in Lathyrus sativus.

 Corn is one of the most important cereals used for poultry feeding due to its high starch, available energy and protein. Starch is an important source of energy in cereals and it is important to pay attention to its availability. In the cell wall of the endosperm, cereal grains, contain some of the structural carbohydrates that are soluble in the small intestine and have high molecular weight which may cause viscosity. Positive physical and chemical changes by steam conditioning, include starch gelatinization, denaturation of digestive enzyme inhibitor proteins, and cell wall breakage. Regardless of NSP content, some amounts of nutrients pass through the birds gut without being digested in corn-soy diets. Supplementing broiler diets with exogenous enzymes to degrade NSP has been a useful tool to release energy and nutrients, which can increase the value of low quality corn in poultry feeds and improve growth performance.

This project was conducted at the Poultry Research Center of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. A batch of corm grains was obtained from a commercial supplier and ground in a hammer mill to pass through screen sizes of 3.0 and 5.0 mm for starter (1-10 d) and grower (11-24 d) periods, respectively.First trial: Apparent metabolizable energy (AME) and digestibility of corn crude protein (CP) and dry matter (DM) were determined in basal diets, which the corn was the sole source of ME and CP. Basal diets contained the conditioned (at temperatures of 55, 70 and 85 °C) or unconditioned corn and was or was not supplemented with enzyme (Rovabio®; Adisseo, France) at the amount of 0.5 g/kg diet. Total excreta collection was performed with 144 chicks in 8 treatments with 6 replicates and 3 birds each, during 7 to 9 days of age using battery cages. Excreta from each replicate cage were collected early in the morning and in the evening. After removing feathers, feed residues, and other contamination sources, excreta were air dried in an oven at 55 °C for 72 hours. Then the excreta were weighed and homogenized, then a sample of approximately 30% of the excreta was randomly separated and kept at -20 °C to further analysis. Then, dried excreta samples were ground in a micro-mill and submitted to the Animal Nutrition Lab. Feed and excreta dry matter, gross energy, and nitrogen contents were determined.Second trial: In second trial, 576 d-old broilers from Ross 308 strain with initial BW of 43 g, were fed with mash diets containing conditioned corn which was or was not supplemented with enzyme, during starter (1-10 d) and grower (11-24 d) periods. The experiment was done based on a completely randomized design with 4 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments evaluating four corn conditioning temperatures (unconditioned and conditioned at 55, 70 and 85 °C) and two enzyme (Rovabio®; Adisseo, France) levels (0 and 0.5 g/kg diet). chicks were assigned under eight treatments with 6 floor pen replicates. Each floor pen of 1.2 × 1 × 0.8 m (L × W × H) included 12 chicks (6 male and 6 female, equally for all replicates). Floor pens were covered with 1.5 Kg/m2 of wood shavings. Four of eight experimental diets were supplemented with 0.5 g/kg of a multiple enzyme complex composed of cellulases, 6400 unit; β-glucanase, 2000 unit and Xylanase 22000 unit per gram (Rovabio®; Adisseo, France). Corn-soy-based diets were formulated to meet the Ross 308 strain recommendations for major nutrients for starter and grower phases. Feed and water were supplied for ad libitum consumption throughout the trial with a tube feeder and two nipple drinkers in each floor pen. House temperature was initially set at 32 ◦C on day one and was decreased linearly by 0.5 ◦C per d to a temperature of 21 ◦C. During the experiment, the lighting program consisted of 23L:1D. A completely randomized design with 4×2 factorial arrangement was used in the both trials. Main factors were included corn conditioning temperatures (unconditioned and conditioned at 55, 70 and 85 °C) and two enzyme levels (0 and 0.5 g/kg diet). The data were analyzed using generalized linear model (GLM) procedure, SAS software (9.4) and the differences between them was tested by Duncan's test (P ≤ 0.05).

 Conditioning and enzyme supplementation had no significant effects on AME and CP digestibility. Conditioning at 80 °C decreased DM digestibility of corn in comparison to control group (P<0.05). Enzyme had no significant effect on DM digestibility. In second trial, there were no significant differences in productive performance among treatments during 11-24 d and the accumulated period (1 to 24 d). Feed conversion ratio (FCR) of the birds fed diets containing conditioned corn at 85 °C was significantly more than that of 55 and 70 °C diets during 1-10 d; although it was not significantly different with control group. Neither corn conditioning nor enzyme supplementation had significant effect on carcass characteristics, and small intestine segments length and weight at 24 d. Enzyme supplementation significantly increased villi height and width at 24 d (P < 0.05). Corn conditioning significantly increased villi width and crypt depth but decreased villi width to crypt depth ratio. Bifidobacteria, E. coli and clostridia population in the ileal contents were not affected by corn conditioning and enzyme supplementation. Lactobacillus population was increased by enzyme addition and also by corn conditioning at temperature 70 °C in compare to control group. These results are in agreement with those reported by Gonza´lez-Alvarado et al. (2007) who reported no significant differences in growth performance of broiler chicks fed heat treated corn-based diets. However, negative effect of higher pelleting temperatures on the WG of birds fed corn-based diets have also been reported. They showed that pelleting a corn–soybean meal diet at 65 ◦C resulted in higher weight gain compared to the basal mash diet and diets pelleted at 75 and 85 ◦C.

 In general, corn conditioning and enzyme supplementation did not improve growth performance and nutrient utilization but improved gut histomorphology and microbial status.

 Wheat is an important cereal due to high starch, available energy and protein contents and is used in poultry diets. Thermal processing is one of the common ways to increase the digestibility of feed, nutritional value of protein through denaturing the anti-nutritional compounds.

 Materials and Methods:

 This project was conducted in two experiments at the Poultry Research Center of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad.

First experiment: 

This trial was designed to determine the apparent metabolizable energy and the digestibility of crude protein and dry matter in four heat treated wheat with and without enzyme supplementation. One hundred twenty mixed sex day-old broiler chicks were fed standard starter (0-10d) and grower (11-15d) diets, 96 of them were divided into 48 groups of two each and randomly assigned to 48 metabolic cages on day 15. Eight diets in which the sole source of energy and protein was wheat, were prepared and each was randomly fed to six replicates of two chicks each from 15-21d. At 18th day of age, 12 hours of starvation were imposed on all chicks; then trays were placed under each cage and feeds were supplied to all cages for 72 hours when the 2nd 12 hours of starvation was imposed and the collection of excreta continued until the end of the second starvation period. The amount of feed consumed by chicks in each cage in three days was determined by the differences of feed supplied and remained. Excreta collected from each cage was placed in a room air flow for 48 hours and then placed in an oven at 60°C for 72 hours to dry completely.Second experiment: in this trial, 576 birds (11d) were divided into two groups, (male and female) from which six males and six females were randomly assigned to one of the 48 pens. To prepare 8 experimental diets, only one grower diet (11-24days) containing 70.11% wheat was formulated based on Ross 308 nutrients recommendation and an untreated and three heat treated wheat with and without enzyme supplementation (Rovabio) were replaced to prepare the 8 diets. The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with factorial (2×4) arrangement with 6 replicates of 12 birds each. Diets were randomly assigned to 48 pens in a way that each diet fed 6 replicate birds. On the final day of the trial (24d), one male bird from each replicate group was weighed and slaughtered. The carcass, breast, thighs, back, wings and neck, as well as the weight of internal organs including the heart, spleen, proventriculus, gizzard, liver, pancreas, bursa fabrisius, abdominal fat, duodenum, jejunum and ileum were measured. Duodenum, jejunum and ileum length were also measured. To evaluate the effect of different untreated and heat treated wheat at different temperatures with and without enzyme supplementation on the microbial condition of the digestive contents of the ileum digesta on 24d, about 3 grams of the contents of the ileum region from each slaughtered chicken transferred to the sterile tube containing 9 ml of buffer phosphate and placed in an ice flask and transferred to laboratory.

Results and Discussion:

 Thermal treatment significantly improved the apparent metabolizable energy, digestibility of crude protein and dry matter of wheat, so that the highest apparent metabolizable energy and dry matter of wheat was obtained when wheat was processed at 85°C. Whereas the highest digestibility of crude protein in wheat was obtained at 70°C thermal processing. The effect of enzyme on apparent metabolizable energy, apparent digestibility of crude protein and dry matter of wheat was not significant. The results of this study showed that thermal processing of wheat has a significant effect on feed consumption, daily gain, body weight gain and feed conversion ratio. Whereas the feed conversion ratio in chicks fed with diet containing wheat processed at 70°C was similar to those fed other diets contained heat treated wheat and was significantly better than those fed control diet. Dietary enzyme supplementation had a significant effect on body weight, daily gain and conversion coefficient, so that the daily gain of chicks fed diet containing enzyme was increased by 4.5% and the conversion factor was improved by 4.2% compared to those fednon-enzyme diet. Thermal treatment of wheat significantly affect relative percentage of thigh weight and relative weight of broiler chickens at 24 day age, so that the highest relative percentage weight of thigh and breast was in chicks fed diet contained wheat processed at a temperature of 70°C. On the other hand, thermal treatment of wheat significantly affect the relative percentage of abdominal fat, which increased compared to untreated wheat. Also, the present study showed that processed wheat did not have a significant effect on the percentage of carcass weight, back, wings and neck, liver, pancreas, heart, spleen and bursa. Also, the interaction effect of thermal processing of wheat and enzyme supplementation on the relative weight of carcass, its parts and internal organs was not significant. The supplementation of enzyme had only a significant effect on ileum weight. Thermal processing of wheat at different temperatures had a significant effect on the height and width of villi in jejunum, but did not have a significant effect on the depth of the crypt and villi height to crypt depth. The lactobacillus population in the ileum region has not been affected by the heat treatment of wheat and a negative response to Salmonella infection was observed in all chickens. On the other hand, the use of enzyme supplementation did not have a significant effect on villi height and depth of crypt and villi height to crypt depth. The interaction effect of heat treated wheat and enzyme supplementation was not significant for neither of the measurements.

Conclusion:

 The results of this experiment showed that although thermal processing of wheat at 85°C increased the apparent metabolizable energy by 5.32% and dry matter digestibility by 5.61%. In addition, the inclusion of heat treated wheat in diet led to an increase in height and width of jejunal villi and improvement of feed intake weight gain and feed conversation ratio in broiler chickens.

The effect of heat processing of wheat grains and enzyme supplementation on its apparent metabolizable energy (AME) and digestibility of protein and dry matter as well as the effect of their use in the diet on the growth performance, jejunum morphology and microbial population of ileum were investigated. For this purpose, 480 broiler chickens in a 4×2 factorial experiment with three levels of heat processing of wheat at 55, 70 and 85 °C for 2.5 minutes (with one treatment without thermal processing) and Rovabio enzyme (0 and 500 g/ton of diet) was used in a completely randomized design with eight treatments, six replicates of 10 birds each at the age of 25-42 days. Heat processing of wheat at55 and 85 °C increased its AME compared to unprocessed treatment; So that the AME of processed wheat at 85 °C was 2.49% higher than unprocessed wheat (P<0.05). Enzyme supplementation significantly increased the AME of wheat (P < 0.05). Wheat processing at all three temperatures reduced the height of jejunum villi compared to the unprocessed group (P < 0.01). Also, processing of wheat at 70 and 85 °Cincreased the population of lactobacilli compared to treatment without processing (P = 0.05). The use of enzyme in the diet reduced the feed intake of the birds and the height of jejunal villi (P<0.05). Overall,, enzyme supplementation and heat processing of wheat improve its AME but have no remarkable effect on the growth performance of broiler chickens.

Processing have an impact on nano-molecular basis, which increase digestion of starch. Heat processing destroys the crystalline nature of a starch granule making the surface of the starch more available to digestive solvents and enzymes as well as to the rumen microbes (Bdour et al. 2014). The in situ nylon bag technique is widely used to characterize the disappearance of feeds from rumen (woods et al. 2002). In situ incubation is a principle method for the estimation of ruminal degradability of dry matter and crude protein, because it is simple, does not require specific equipment and could be applied in every research laboratory (Alexandrow 1998). In many protein evaluation systems for ruminants, the nylon bag technique is the standard method used for calculating the amount of protein escaping rumen fermentation (Cone et al. 2002). A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that produces images of a sample by scanning the surface with a focused beam of electrons. The electrons interact with atoms in the sample, producing various signals that contain information about the sampleʼs surface topography and composition. Accordingly, scanning electron microscope (SEM) can achieve resolution better than 1 nanometer (Stokes 2008). This experiment was conducted to investigate the digestibility of dry matter and crude protein of sorghum grain in the rumen and therefore, investigate changes in nano-molecular basis.

In this study sorghum grain was processed using methods of steam flaking, roasting and microwaving. Feed samples were dried in an oven at 90°C for 48 h and the dry matter (DM) content was calculated. Then, ground samples were analyzed for ash (AOAC, 2005). Determinations of N were conducted using the Kjeldahl method in an automated Kjelfoss apparatus (Foss Electric, Copenhagen, Denmark). Neutral-detergent fiber (NDF) and acid-detergent fiber (ADF) were determined by the detergent procedures of Van Soest et al. (1991). Acid-detergent insoluble nitrogen (ADIN) was determined as nitrogen in acid-detergent residue. Ether extract (EE) was determined by extracting the sample with ether (AOAC 2005). Degradation characteristics of feeds were calculated after the incubation of 5 g samples of row, steam flaked, roasted, and microwaved sorghum grains (ground at 2 mm) in nylon bags. The bag size was 6×12 cm. The bags were incubated in the rumen of two cannulated sheep for 0, 2, 4, 8, 12, 24, 36, and 48 h. Retrieved bags were washed under running water until the water was clear. Immediately after removal from the rumen, the bags frozen at −18 °C. At the end of the collections, they were unfrozen and washed together with the zero time bags (not incubated in the rumen) for 20 min and then dried at 80°C for 48 h. The residues were weighted and submitted for analysis. For each bag, the residue was analyzed for DM and nitrogen. Feed residues were recovered from each bag and stored for Kjeldahl nitrogen. The model of p=a+b(1-e-ct) was used for the determination of degradation characteristics, in which p is the actual degradation of CP and DM after t, a is the intercept of the degradation curve at time zero, b is the potential degradability of the component of the slowly soluble CP and DM, which will in time be degraded, c represents the constant degradability rate of b at time t, and t is the incubation time. In order to provide SEM images, scanning electron microscopy (Field Emission Tescan mirca 3) was used in the central laboratory of University of Tabriz. The values of a (% solubility) and b (potentially degradable fraction) and deviation of error were determined.  Data obtained from in situ study was subjected to analysis of variance as a completely randomized design by the GLM procedure of SAS software and treatment means were compared by the Duncan test.

In situ results showed that steam flaking of sorghum grain have the most digestibility compared with other treatments, but it was not significant. Steam flaking of sorghum grain reduced nutritional restriction (Teurer et al. 1999) and in many studies has been showed decreases in tannin and phenolic compounds. Microwave processing reduced digestibility; however, it was not significant. Lewandowicz et al. (2002) reported that microwaving reduced starch solubility, because high heat treatment in microwaved starch can create resistance and continual basis in granular structures. Processing significantly decreased crude protein digestibility in all three treatments (P<0.05) that previous studies have confirmed these results (Parnian 2008, Nickhah et al. 2003, Hamaker 1987).
Thermal process reduces protein digestibility in the rumen via denaturing the protein and formation of protein-protein and protein-carbohydrate bonds (Anonymous 2001). Dandy et al. (1995) also concluded wet sorghum baking reduced digestibility. Preston (1998) reported that processing and steaming of corn and sorghum grains reduced solubility of proteins. Also, access to lysine amino acids reduced by flakes density reduces. Scanning electron micrographs in all three treatments showed that processing destructed protein matrix and increased enzymes access to starch granules and increased their digestibility. In steam flaking treatment, granule surfaces were attacked by microorganisms and protein matrix destructed more than other treatments. Also, terminal processing in all three treatments gelatinated the starch and increased average of scale of granules. In addition to the importance of starch digestion, the increase in viscosity during gelatinization may also positively affect physical quality of processed feeds through increasing in binding between feed particles. Svihus et al. (2004) reported that pelleting can improve feed integrity by increasing binding between particles. Gelatinization of starch greatly increases α-amylase accessibility to amylose and amylopectin glucose chains and so, increases the rate of starch digestion. The number of created orifices is explanatory for degradability values. Benmoussa et al. (2006) concluded that number and scale of granules have positive effects on digestive properties. In this study, despite of smaller number and smaller size of orifices in steam flaking treatment than other treatments (against further degradability of steam flaking than others treatments), SEM images of incubated steam flaking showed that granules were processed completely. Therefore, lots of uniformity and meltingcan be justified as its high degradability.

Electron microscopy images showed that the number and size of holes (nano-sized) per unit area of ​​treatments were highly correlated with the degree of degradability. Steam flaked treatment has caused more gelatinization in starch granules as the size of the granules has increased more than the control treatment and other treatments. Steam flake processing shows better degradability properties than other treatments and provides higher amounts of nutrients to microorganisms.

Barley grain is one of the major feedstuff in ruminant animal’s nutrition due to its high energy density and lower price than grains such as corn. Rate of barley starch digestion in the rumen is critical issue in high-grain fed ruminants because it is associated with higher performance of animal. Feeding high amount of barley in ruminant animal rations can cause an increase in the incidence of digestive disorders including reduced feed intake, off-feed, acidosis, and liver abscesses. Processing methods such heat treatment can affect physical characteristics and ruminal fermentation of grain. Moreover, barley grains from diverse cultivars are different in their chemical composition and fermentation characteristics due to geographical, environmental and genetic variations as well as their interactions. This experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of variety and heat treatment duration on physical characteristics and ruminal disappearance of barley grain. Two varieties of endemic barley grain (i.e. Sahand and Makoei) were prepared from Seed and Plant Improvement Institute, Karaj, Iran. The grains were roasted in three time duration (5, 10 or 15 min at 120o C) in a cast iron container. The experiment was conducted using a 2*3 factorial design. The samples were dried in 60° oven for 48 hours. Chemical composition was determined according to prescribed procedures of AOAC (2002). Neutral detergent finer (NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF) were measured by method of Van-Soest et al. (1991). Bulk density of sample was determined using the method described by Montgomery and Baumgardt (1965). Water holding capacity (WHC) determined by filtration method (Robertson and Eastwood, 1981). Dry matter solubility and ash solubility of samples were determind by method of Giger-Reverdin (2000). Dry matter degradability was measured by in situ technique using two fistulated Ghezel sheep (fed 60% forage + 40% concentrate). Samples were put in the polyester bags and incubated in the rumen for 2, 4, 8, 12, 16, 24, 36, and hours. After the specific incubation periods, bags were washed under running tap water until the effluent was clear and then dried at 55◦C for 48 h. Bags and contents were weighed to estimate DM disappearance (DMD). Kinetic parameters of DM degradation was estimated by the nonlinear regression procedure of SAS (SAS Inst. Inc., Cary, NC) using the model of McDonald (1981) y = a + b (1 − e−c(t−lag)). Data were subjected to analysis as a factorial in a completely randomized design using the General Linear Model (GLM) procedure of SAS. Roasting increased dry matter (DM) content of both barley varieties (P<0.05). An increase in ADF and NDF content of roasted grain was due to decrease in water content of grain. Sahand variety showed higher degradability than Makoei (P<0.05). Dry matter degradability of both barley varieties decreased during 16 to 48 h of incubation due to roasting process (P<0.05); however, these varieties showed different kinetics of degradation during early period of incubation. Roasting increased DM degradability of the Sahand variety during initial 6 h of incubation; however, it showed different pattern in the Makoie variety. The rapid and slow degradable fractions (ie; a and b) decreased by roasting duration in both varieties (P<0.05). Also heat processing of barley grain resulted in a lower effective degradability of dry matter (P<0.01). Effective degradability of Sahand variety was higher than Makoie in all passage rates and all duration of heat processing (P<0.05). Fractional rate of degradability did not change by heat treatment. Makoei variety had higher water holding capacity (WHC), bulk density (BD), dry matter solubility (DS), and ash solubility (AS) than Sahand (P<0.05). Roasting increased WHC and decreased BD in both varieties (P<0.05) but had no effect on DS and AS. There were positive correlations between BD100 and Ether Extract (EE), NDF and ADF content of barley grain, which were 0.53, 0.40, and 0.35, respectively. Also, water holding capacity showed high positive correlation with NDF and ADF content (r =0.84 and r =0.71 respectively) and as expected conversely correlated with EE content (r = -0.61) of barley grain. Both of DMS and AS conversely correlated with EE content of barley grain (r = -0.24 and r = -0.49 respectively). The results of the current study demonstrated that it is possible to decrease ruminal degradability of barley grain by using the right roasting treatment and choosing the proper variety. Makoei variety showed more decrease in fractional rate of digestion, which should be considered in the ration formulation

This study examined the effects of partial replacement of soybean meal (SBM) with heat-treated soybean meal (HSBM) in heat-stressed cows. 32 multiparous Holstein cows (DIM = 110 ± 20; milk yield = 40 ± 4.1 kg) were used in a complete block randomized design with a 2×2 factorial arrangment of treatments. Treatments included two dietary crude protein levels (i.e. 17 and 15.5%) each combined with HSBM partially replaced for SBM. The experiment was conducted in two periods of 28 days with the last seven days for sampling and collection of data of tempreature, nutrient intake and digestibility and blood variables. Average THI showed that cows were in mild heat stress (70.60 and 71.50 for periods 1 and 2, respectively)(p > 0.05). Diets with 15.5% CP and based on HSBM increased intakes of dry and organic matter (p 0.05). Butyric and isovaleric acid were increased in cows received HSBM (p

This experiment was conducted to determine nitrogen fractions and ruminal dry matter and protein degradability of raw or heated (roasted or extruded) soybean seed. Samples were incubated for 2, 4, 8, 16, 24 and 48 h in the rumen of 4 cannulated Kurdish male lambs (50 ± 3 kg BW). N itrogen fractions of samples were measured by chemical methods. Results showed that extruding decreased non-protein nitrogen (NPN) and acid detergent insoluble nitrogen (ADIN) in soybean seed. In compared with raw soybean seed, roasting decreased and increased buffer soluble nitrogen and neutral detergent insoluble nitrogen (NDIN), respectively. Lowest NPN and ADIN were observed in extruded soybean seed. Soybean seed extruding decreased and increased the rapidly degradable fraction (a) and the slowly degradable fraction (b) of protein, respectively. Roasting and extruding significantly decreased the rate of degradation (c). Effective degradability (ED) of soybean seed dry matter and crude protein significantly decreased by heat processing. Roasting and extruding had no effect on degradability potential of soybean seed dry matter and crude protein. The results of this experiment showed that heat processing significantly altered nitrogen fractions and decreased ruminal protein degradability of soybean seed. Also, extruding was better than roasting because it decreased NPN, ADIN, a fraction and ED and increased b fraction of soybean seed protein.

An experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of dry heat processing of full fat soybean for different times on nutrient quality, probably heat damaging of soybean and performance of broiler chicks. The full fat soybeans were heated in oven at 150°C for 0, 20, 40 and 60 minutes and was added to the basal diet in two graded levels (20.4 and 46.67%). The experiment was done as a completely randomized design in a factorial arrangement with 4 replicate in each treatment. The experimental diets were compared with a control diet which contained soybean meal instead of full fat soybean. Urease and trypsin inhibitor activity were measured as an indicator for effectiveness of heat processing of soybean. Protein solubility in potassium hydroxide was measured for determining the probably heat damaging of soybean. The result of this experiment showed that heat processing for 60 minutes has greatest effect in reducing the urease and trypsin inhibitor activity but does not affect the protein solubility and thus reducing the protein quality. Finally, the effect of diets containing processed soybeans on male broiler performance from 21 to 42 days was evaluated and was observed that the effects of heat processing time and the use of soybean seed in the diet on chick performance was significant (P<0.05). Heat processing for 60 minutes showed the highest weight gain and feed intake, lowest feed conversion ratio and pancreases hypertrophy and the performance of broiler in this experiment was closed to the control diet (P>0.05). The consumption level of 20.4% soy in the diet compared with 46.67% showed better performance in parameters. Interaction effects between inclusion of soybean in diet and soy processing time was significant (P<0.05). Dry heat proccessing of full fat soybean for 60 minute and add it to the basal diet at a level of 20.4% yielded the best performance in broiler chickens.

Effect of heat processing on the nutritive value of broiler litter، as a potential ruminant feedstuff، was studied in two pilot plans، processing through an assessment of chemical composition، protein fractionation according to CNCPS as wells digestibility making use of Tilley and Terry method. In a manufactory located in the city of Sabzevar. The average values of Dry Matter (DM)، Crude Protein (CP)، Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDFom)، Acid detergent fiber (ADFom)، ash، Ca، P، Mg، K، Na، Fe، Mn، Cu and Zn in the unprocessed broiler litter constituted 83. 5% of the fresh matter، 26. 4، 41. 3، 14. 2، 18. 6، 1. 85، 0. 97، 0. 8، 1. 0، 0. 065 % of DM، 910. 75، 332. 73، 58. 14 and 384. 4 mg/kg of DM، respectively. These values for the processed litter، respectively، amounted to 92. 9 % of fresh weight، 25. 5، 46. 2، 14. 4، 18. 6، 1. 74، 0. 95، 0. 72، 0. 94، 0. 062 % of DM، 1029. 3، 304. 25، 54. 74 and 379. 75 mg/kg of DM. As for the Semnan manufactory، the average values for the unprocessed litter were، respectively،73. 2 % of fresh weight، 28. 8، 16. 0، 17. 2، 1. 92، 1. 13، 0. 61، 1. 1، 0. 036 % of DM، 13.، 374. 0، 52. 69 and 345. 0 mg/kg of DM. Fllowing the processing operations the mentioned values changed to 82. 3 % of fresh weight، 28. 3، 49. 1، 18. 5، 17. 8، 1. 86، 0. 94، 0. 60، 0. 87، 0. 035 % of DM، 1598. 2، 338. 67، 51. 15 and 302. 6 mg/kg of DM، respectively. Protein fractions A، B1، B2، B3 and C in the unprocessed litter at Sabzevar manufactory were، respectively 51. 8، 18. 5، 17. 1، 7. 13 and 5. 01 % of CP. The values for Semnan manufactory were recorded as 50. 3، 11. 1، 24. 6، 9. 51 and 5. 4 % of CP، respectively. After heat processing، accomplished and fot both manufactories، fractions A and B1 were reduced، wtereas B2، B3 and C increased (P<0. 05). The in vitro DM Digestibility (DMD)، Organic Matter Digestibility (OMD) and ME contents for the unprocessed litter، respectively، were 799، 798 g/kg and 9. 63 MJ/kg DM for Sabzevar manufactory، and 780، 791 g/kg and 9. 70 MJ/kg DM for Semnan،s. Heating process had no significant effect on digestibility and ME (P>0. 05)، except for DMD at Sabzevar manufactory، which had singificantly decreased. The Pressing method of processing reduced (P<0. 05) DMD، OMD (771 and 773 g/kg) and ME (9. 31 MJ/kg of DM) as compared with unprocessed litter. Overall، although application of indirect heat processing of broiler litter somehow reduced CP، Mg and Cu contents، but by removal of the pathogenic organisms it can lead ot the production of a protein supplement، enriched in mineral،s as a ruminant feedstuff and which can help reduc the environmental pollution.