محبوبه شریفی

Wheat is a critical crop in Iran and pivotal in food security, economic stability, and political landscapes. Wheat fields are the habitat of many insects, including both beneficial and pest species. Therefore, various insecticides are employed in wheat fields to safeguard crop yields. However, pursuing pest control often entails unintended consequences for non-target organisms, particularly pollinators and natural enemies. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of both chemical and herbal insecticides on non-target insect populations within Iranian wheat fields. Although plant-derived insecticides may offer ecological benefits, the study emphasizes the need to evaluate their efficacy against pests and their impact on beneficial insects. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the possible effects of herbal and chemical insecticides on natural enemies.

This study evaluated the adverse effects of some recommended insecticides for wheat pests on some natural enemies. A completely randomized block design with five treatments and four replicates was employed. The experiment was conducted in Ardabil, Tehran, and Golestan, Iran. The size of each plot was 100m2 (10 x10), with a distance of 2m between blocks and plots. A total of 30 wheat stalks were randomly selected for sampling in each plot, and all larvae on these stalks were counted within the wheat field. Sampling was performed on four occasions: one day before and 3, 7, and 14 days after spraying. The treatments included matrine (at concentrations of 1.5 and 2ml/L), deltamethrin (0.3ml/L), fenitrothion (1ml/L), and a control treatment (water). The potential effects of the insecticides were examined on the larvae of natural enemies, including the seven-spotted ladybird, flower fly, and green lacewing. Tehran and Ardabil provinces had low flower fly and green lacewing populations across all treatments, including control. However, the ladybird population was sufficient for evaluation. Therefore, the effects of the insecticides on ladybirds were investigated in these provinces.

The reduction in the population of seven-spotted ladybirds in Ardabil caused by the insecticides was insignificant on days 3 and 7 and significant on day 14. Deltamethrin caused the most negative effect on days 3 and 7, while matrine 2ml/L had the most negative effect on day 14. Deltamethrin consistently caused the largest ladybird population decline in Tehran, with a significant difference from other treatments on all days except day 3. Fenitrothion exhibited the least adverse effect throughout the experiment. Golestan had the healthiest natural enemy populations. In this province, a suitable population of seven-spotted ladybirds, flower flies, and green lacewings was observed. The study confirmed insecticide-induced declines in these populations, with deltamethrin causing the most significant reductions for ladybirds and flower flies, while fenitrothion had the least impact. All insecticides severely reduced green lacewing populations. Based on the results of the 7th day, the reduction of the population of seven-spotted ladybirds in different provinces caused by matrine 1.5 and 2ml/L, fenitrothion, and deltamethrin was 31.04% – 57.91%, 54.19% – 77.58%, 25.01% – 70.16% and 72.02% – 89.35%, respectively. In addition, population reduction caused by matrine 1.5 and 2 ml/L, fenitrothion, and deltamethrin was 31.61%, 67.01%, 24.58%, and 79.06% for flower fly, and 73.24%, 82.79%, 73.24% and 95.94% for green lacewing, respectively. In all cases, the reduction caused by matrine 2ml/L was higher than matrine 1.5ml/L. On day 7, most insecticides were slightly harmful to seven-spotted ladybirds in all provinces except Tehran and Golestan, where fenitrothion was harmless and deltamartin moderately harmful. On this day, matrine, fenitrothion, and deltamethrin were slightly harmful, harmless, and moderately harmful to flower flies, respectively. Moreover, matrine 1.5ml/L and fenitrothion were slightly harmful to green lacewing, while matrine 2ml/L and deltamethrin were moderately harmful.

Deltamethrin consistently exhibited the most pronounced adverse effects across all treatments and natural enemy populations, while fenitrothion had the least severe impact. Green lacewing populations displayed the highest insecticide sensitivity among the studied natural enemies. Based on the results, the effect of insecticides on non-target beneficial organisms was essential when developing integrated pest management (IPM) strategies. Avoiding the application of insecticides, particularly deltamethrin, during peak natural enemy populations was crucial to minimize unintended ecological consequences and promote a balanced ecosystem within wheat fields.

Rice stem borer, Chilo suppressalis Walker (Lep.: Crambidae), is one of the most important and destructive rice pests in the world, including Iran, especially in the northern provinces. Every year, a significant amount of chemical insecticides are introduced into the environment to control this pest, which has caused many concerns in human health (rice farmers and consumers) and other organisms (aquatic, birds, livestock, etc.). Therefore, replacing high-risk chemical insecticides with environmentally friendly and safe compounds can reduce the side effects of pesticides and reduce the occurrence of resistance in this pest to the insecticides used and, as a result, control it more effectively. This study was conducted to compare the effectiveness of several common biological and chemical insecticides to control the rice stem borer, C. suppressalis.For this purpose, a study was designed as a randomized complete block design with six treatments and four replications and was carried out in a field located in Hashemabad village, Gorgan city, Iran. The experimental treatments included chlorpyrifos (Dursban®, EC 40.8%, 2 L/hectare), fipronil (Regent®, SC 50%, 1 L/hectare), fenitrothion (Sumithion®, EC 50%, 1.5 L/hectare), B.T. (1 L/hectare), Matrin (Rui Agro®, SL 0.6%, 1 L/hectare), and a control group (water foliar spraying). Additionally, the larval population was sampled one day before foliar spraying and 3, 7, and 14 days after foliar spraying. The Henderson-Tilton formula was used to calculate the mortality rate (insecticide efficiency). Analysis of variance was performed using the GLM model with SAS software.Means were compared using Duncan's multi-range test at the 5% probability level.The analysis of variance indicated significant differences among the treatments in terms of stem infection percentage and death of the central bud at 7 and 14 days after treatment application. Additionally, the analysis of variance results for stem contamination after 14 days of insecticide application revealed that all insecticides could reduce stem contamination compared to the control treatment, with some insecticides falling within the same statistical group. Regarding the effectiveness of the treatments in controlling the rice stem borer, the analysis of variance results showed that chlorpyrifos, Matrine, and fipronil were the most effective insecticides, followed by fenitrothion and BT, at 3 days after treatment application. At 7 days after treatment application, chlorpyrifos exhibited the highest efficiency, averaging 81.24%, which was not significantly different from fipronil and Matrine. Fenitrothion and BT insecticides demonstrated the lowest efficiency. The same trend persisted 14 days after treatment application, with chlorpyrifos achieving the highest efficiency at an average of 85.85%. There were no significant differences between chlorpyrifos, fipronil, and Matrine, which had efficiencies of 79.65% and 78.97%, respectively. BT insecticide recorded the lowest efficiency level at 54.18%, which was significantly different from the other insecticides.Based on the present study's findings, it is evident that insecticides such as Chlorpyrifos and Fipronil, which have been extensively used in Iran for the chemical control of the rice stem borer, have raised concerns regarding the development of resistance in this pest. Therefore, it is advisable to consider alternatives such as Matrine, which is safer and less hazardous. Matrine, with its distinct mode of action, can serve as a highly suitable option for controlling the rice stem borer while reducing the likelihood of resistance development against insecticides.

Heliothis (or tomato fruit borer) with the scientific name Helicoverpa armigera (Lep.: Noctuidae) is one of the most important and the oldest pest of crops in the country, especially in Golestan Province, which causes huge management costs for farmers, and also due to the use of various types of chemical pesticides every year it causes environmental damage for the agricultural ecosystem of the country. In order to prevent unnecessary spraying and due to the resistance of this pest to many pesticides, it is necessary to consider the effectiveness of other control methods, including the use of insect pathogenic fungi and biological pesticides containing Bacillus thuringiensis. In this research, the effectiveness of three different formulations of the insect pathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana and a biological insecticide based on the active ingredient B. thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki (Biolep P) and an organic insecticide based on plants (Rui Agro) were studied in laboratory conditions and also in two tomato field of Golestan Province. The perforation rate of tomato fruits was also investigated. The laboratory bioassay results of different formulations of B. bassiana with a concentration of 1×107 conidia/ml on 3rd instar larvae showed that all three different formulations of the pathogenic fungus caused between 84 and 91% mortality. The laboratory bioassay of different concentrations of Biolep P on the 3rd instar larvae of the H. armigera after eight days showed that when the concentration of Biolep P increased, the mortality rate also increased significantly. The highest mortality rate was observed with 93.33% in the concentration of 1.5 ml/L and the lowest mortality rate was observed with 48.89% in the concentration of 0.5 ml/L. The results in the tomato fields of Qaleh Mahmud village showed that the efficiency of the applied treatments increases with time. The highest percentage of efficiency in all experimental treatments on the 7th and 10th days after foliar spraying was between 50 and 60 percent. In the tomato field of Chalaki Agricultural Research Station, the efficiency (%) of fungal formulations was reduced on the 10th day of foliar application. In relation to the percentage of fruit perforation in both fields studied, the control treatment and the fungal treatment containing distilled water were placed in the same experimental group and showed the highest percentage of fruit perforation. In general, it can be concluded that repeated foliar spraying of biological control agents is necessary for better pest control or the combination of these methods with low–risk or organic pesticides should be considered..

Although tools for measuring job burnout have been psychometrically tested in Iran, it seems crucial to have an instrument that can be used by the general society. The Covid-19 burnout scale (COVID-19-BS) is the only tool available to assess the burnout following Covid-19 in the general population. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to determine and examine the psychometric properties of the Iranian version of the Covid-19 Burnout Scale (COVID-19-BS).

The present cross-sectional descriptive study was conducted in 2021 on 137 participants in Yasuj, Iran. After the linguistic validation of the Iranian version of COVID-19-BS, the panel of experts evaluated the questionnaire questions by evaluating the content validity index (CVI) and content validity ratio (CVR). At that point, a semi-structured interview was conducted to assess face validity. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were performed to show the constructs of the questionnaire. The reliability of the questionnaire was measured using the internal consistency test and test-retest analysis. The collected data were analyzed using Cronbach's alpha, Pearson's correlation coefficient, exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis.

Content Validity Index (CVI) and Content Validity Ratio (CVR) for COVID-19-BS were 0.90 and 0.94, respectively. A two-factor structure (physical and mental burnout symptoms) appeared in the EFA test, which was responsible for 67.51% of the observed variance. CFA results for the extracted two-factor structure showed an acceptable fit. Also, acceptable results were shown for internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha from 0.89 to 0.73) and intraclass correlation coefficients (between 0.72 and 0.80).

The results of the present study indicated a favorable preliminary psychometric test of COVID-19-BS in the Iranian population. The COVID-19-BS questionnaire is the first valid questionnaire in Farsi language regarding job burnout following Covid-19 in the general population, which may be useful for other Farsi-speaking countries that are exposed to job burnout due to Covid-19.

Low-cost physical methods were evaluated in oilseed rape farms of Golestan and North Khorasan provinces. Experiments were conducted in 400 m2 plots using Completely Randomized Block Design with three replications. Treatments were consisted of: 1. Spanish tape, (EcoBirdNex), 2. Large white plastic bags, 3. white nylon tape, 4. Nylon thread with white yoonolit pieces, 5. Plastic tube, 6. Control (no treatment). In autumn 2019 and 2020, samplings were conducted using ten quadrates of 1×1 m2, 1, 2, 3 and 4 weeks after treatments. Total number of damaged and undamaged plants were registered and the percentage of damaged plants was calculated accordingly. Treatments showed significant difference with control and effects of treatments was significant in North Khorasan and in Golestan (P<0.05). Effects of weeks was significant in Golestan in both years, and in North Khorasan in 2019 (P<0.05). In view of preparation of treatments and economic costs, treatments of plastic bags and Spanish tape were effective and applicable with two functions of physical sight barrier and making nuisance simultaneously, with no harm on the environment.

Chrysomphalus dictyospermi (Morgan, 1889) (Hem.: Diaspididae) is one of the most important citrus pests. Since weather conditions in the north of Iran are suitable for this pest, it infects the entire regions in a short period. Various pesticides are widely used to control this pest. These toxins have an adverse effect on human health, ecosystem and reduce the population of natural enemies of pests. The present study aimed to evaluate the effect of Thiamthoxam (Actamia 24% SC) at 0.5, 0.75, Spirotetramat (Movento 100% SC) at 1 per 1000, and Chlorpyrifos (Dorsban 48% SC) at 2 per thousand pesticides on different developmental stages of C. dictyospermi and its biological control agent Chilocorus bipustulatus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Col.: Coccinellidae) in Gilan and Golestan, Iran. In this research, a new formulation of thiamethoxam pesticide named Actamia was used. The results showed that in both provinces, the highest efficiency is related to Actamia and Spirotetramat insecticides with a dose of 1 per 1000 after 14 days. Moreover, the studies showed that these compounds have the most negative effects on C. bipustulatus, and the most important natural enemy of this pest.

Alpha-cypermethrin+Teflubenzuron (Imunit®) is an insecticide that is recommended by Iran Plant Protection Organization (IPPO) for the control of the cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera Hübner) in tomato fields. In this research, the effect of Imunit® was assessed on survival rate of adult worker honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) in laboratory conditions. Newly emerged (≤24-h old) and forager (>21-day old) bees were treated with the field recommended dose of this insecticide via three types of exposure (residual contact, oral, or spray). In addition, the sublethal effects of Imunit® on the specific activity of some detoxifying enzymes including α-esterase, β-esterase, and Glutathione S-transferase (GST) was studied. The toxicological tests illustrated that the toxicity of Imunit® varies with age of the bee and the type of exposure. Except for the spray method, forager bees were more susceptible than newly emerged ones to this insecticide. Imunit® was significantly more toxic to newly emerged bees when applied as residual contact and spray than orally, whereas foragers showed more sensitivity after contact exposure to the residues of this insecticide. Activity of the detoxifying enzymes also changed regarding the bees' age and the means of exposure to Imunit®. In general, our findings demonstrate the high potential of Imunit® in the intoxication of honey bees.

The white peach scale, Pseudaulacaspis pentagona, is one of the most important pests of stone fruit trees in the northern provinces of Iran. The efficacy of several synthetic and biorational insecticides was investigated on white peach scale in a peach orchard in Shirang-E-Olya village of Kamalan district in Aliabad-E-Katoul city. The study was conducted in a randomized complete block design with 9 treatments and four replications in the peach orchard. Treatments in this experiment include: Pyriproxyfen (EC10%) at the rate of 1 and 2 ml/L, Chlorpyrifos (EC 40.8%) at the rate of 4 and 8 ml/L, Thiacloprid (OD 24%) at the rate of 0.6 and 1.2 ml/L, Spirotetramate (SC 100) at the rate of 1 and 2 ml/L, Flupyradifurone (SL 20%) at the rate of 1 and 2 ml/L, Palizin (SL) at the rate of 3 and 1.5 ml/L, Tondexir (EC) at the rate of 4 and 8 ml/L, Citral (EC) at the rate of 1 and 2 ml/L and control. Sampling was performed 1 day before spraying, and then the first and second generation of this pest after spraying. Data were analyzed by Glm method and means were compared by Duncan multiple range test using SAS software. Spirotetramate (1 ml/L) had the highest efficacy percentage among the insecticides used on the first generation of this pest. For the second generation also, the highest efficacy was observed by Spirotetramate (1ml/L) and Chlorpyrifos (4 ml/L). Among the bio-insecticides, 1.5 ml/L of Palizin and 8 ml/L of Tondexir were highly effective, too. Although chemical insecticide such as Chlorpyrifos showed good results, the new insecticide Spirotetramate had the same or better efficacy than Chlorpyrifos. Therefore this insecticide can be a suitable substituted for chlorpyrifos. Biorational insecticides also had good effect in eliminating white peach scale and can be used as biocompatible insecticide.

Over the last two decades in response to rising production costs in many Asian countries the method of establishing rice by manual seedling transplantation has changed to direct cultivation. Changing the method of rice establishment and the resulting stresses has led to pay more attention to management methods in direct rice cultivation. Rice stem borer (Chilo suppressalis) is one of the most destructive pests of this product. In this study, the efficacy of Hexaflumuron (Consult®) and Kitoagrosens inhibitor fertilizer with the recommended concentrations  was evaluated to control this pest at intervals of 3, 7, 14 and 21 days after spraying using Henderson-Tilton method. Their effects on rice yield components were investigated, too. The results showed that in terms of insecticidal efficacy on rice stem borer, both the compounds were most effective after 7 days, while Hexaflumuron ( >90%) was more effective than Kitoagrosens (~70%). On the other hand, the results related to crop yield components showed that Kitoagrosens had better effects on all parameters, especially on 100-seed weight, which is significantly higher than other treatments. Based on the results of this study, it can be concluded that Kitoagrosens has e less insecticidal ability than Hexaflumuron but have a greater strengthening effect on the quantitative and qualitative indicators of rice crop.

Strawberry, Fragaria ananassa Duch. which belongs to the Rosaceae family is one of the most important micro-fruits of temperate regions that has been considered as one of the most important and commercial products in the recent decades. Golestan province is the third largest strawberry producer in Iran after Kurdistan and Mazandaran Provinces (Ahmadi et al., 2018). Spodoptera littoralis (Boisduval, 1833) is a highly polyphagous pest that attacks to a wide range of crops (Lanzoni et al., 2012). The eggs are whitish-yellow in color, spherical, somewhat flattened, with 0.6 mm diameter, surrounded by hair scales. The newly hatched larvae are 2 to 3 mm long with white bodies and black heads and are very difficult to detect visually. The larvae are hairless, cylindrical, and variable in color from blackish-gray to dark green, becoming reddish-brown or whitish-yellow. They have dark and light longitudinal bands on lateral sides; and with two dark semilunar spots on each segment (except for the prothorax) dorso-laterally. This pest has 5-6 larval instars, and length of full grown larvae is 40-45 mm. The pupae are cylindrical, 14-20 5 mm, and the last segment ends in two strong straight hooks. Firstly in green with reddish color on the abdomen, turning dark reddish-brown within few hours. The adult moth with length of 15-20 mm, and wingspan of 30-38 mm. It has a gray-brown body, with gray to reddish brown forewing that has paler lines along the veins, and grayish white hind wing, iridescent with gray margins (Pinhey, 1975).Based on the available literature, the larvae ofS. littoralis are newly observed in Golestan Province on strawberry (Fig. 1). In the early stages of damage, the young larvae feed on small areas on the underside of the leaf. Older larvae make large holes in the leaves or eat them completely, or damage young branches, young buds and bare parts of the stems, severely. In the Khan Bebin fields where strawberry bushes left in the ground to produce stolons for reproduction, the larvae started to feed on the leaves from the early September, and with increasing the larval age, their feeding intensified and eventually caused destroying the central meristem of the plant. Egyptian cotton leaf worm with its high ability of reproduction, and feeding, can be considered as a serious and very important pest in Golestan province, due to the climatic conditions of the region.

Organophosphates (OPs), one of the most important pesticide groups, are used worldwide to control pests. Acetylcholinesterase (EC 1.14.18.1) (AChE), an enzyme from insects’ nervous systems, is the leading target site of this group of pesticides, such as Acephate. Inhibition of enzyme activity through Acephate-derived compounds can control both resistant and non-resistant pests to OPs. In this research, the toxicity of these compounds was assayed regarding the control of Xanthogaleruca luteola (Muller). Results of the in vivo screening test revealed that two derived compounds of phosphorhydrazides (PHA) (i.e., NH2-C(O) NH-NH P(O)(OC6H5) and OC4H3-C(O)NH-NHP(S)(OCH3)2) showed the most significant insecticidal potential. AChE was purified and isolated from the third instar larvae of elm leaf beetle, X. luteola, using affinity chromatography. IC50 values, inhibition mechanisms, and inhibitory constant (Ki) of NH2-C(O) NH-NH P(O)(OC6H5) and OC4H3-C(O)NH-NHP(S)(OCH3)2 as inhibitors were calculated for the purified AChE. These compounds inhibited acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and general esterases of third instar larvae of elm leaf beetle. These compounds, by mix inhibition mechanism, inhibited AChE enzyme, and Ki obtained was 1.16 and 0.88 µM-1 min-1 for NH2-C(O) NH-NH P(O)(OC6H5) and OC4H3-C(O)NH-NHP(S)(OCH3)2, respectively. QSAR study based on multiple linear regressions (MLR) and principal component analysis (PCA) showed that the non-descriptor net charge of the nitrogen atom influenced by the polarization of N-H group had the most significant effect on the insecticidal potential. Therefore, designing new compounds that control the N-H polarization of the nitrogen atom could be an excellent option to study insecticidal properties of Acephate-derived compounds.

Frequent and extensive use of various pesticides to control of common pistachio psylla (Agonoscenapistaciae), as one of the most important pests of pistachio, has provided the possibility of reduced susceptibility of this pest to pesticides. In this study, the susceptibility of 13 populations of A. pistaciae collected from pistachio orchards at areas of Bardaskan, Khalil Abad and Feiz Abad were studied to imidaclopridand to chlorpyrifos using bioassay experiments by leaf disc dipping method and based on the discriminating dose. The bioassay results indicated that the LC50 values of imidacloprid and chlorpyrifos on the susceptible population were determined as 261.2 and 83.03 ppm, respectively. The bioassay with discriminating dose (i.e. LC90 of the susceptible population) showed that all of the tested populations were susceptible to chlorpyrifos. But there were significant differences in susceptibility to imidacloprid between different populations compared to the susceptible one. The highest mortality percentage applying the discriminating dose was obtained for Kondor- susceptible population and the lowest one was related to Jalal-Abad, Zaher Abad and Kondor- resistant populations. The biochemical assays with measuring the esterase activity demonstrated that one of the mechanisms reduce susceptibility was an increase of esterase activity; so that, the activity of the susceptible population was 2.5 times less than that of populations that had low sensitivity. Furthermore, zymogram analysis showed that all populations had 2 enzyme bonds that qualitatively differ in the case of non-sensitive populations compared to the susceptible one. Measurement of glutathione S-transferase activity also showed that this enzyme system was involved in the reduction of the susceptibility of common pistachio psylla to imidacloprid.

Whiteflies and thrips are important pests that active in cotton fields and in addition to direct damage, they alsoindirectly reduce quantity and quality of oilseeds. Orius niger (Wolff) (Hem.: Anthocoridae) is one of theoptimal biocontrol agents for thrips and whiteflies, which is abundant in oilseed fields, especially cotton fields ofGolestan province. In order to evaluate the predatory efficiency of O. niger, this insect was collected from cottonfields and grown in laboratory conditions. In experiments related to the study of predatory; for each predator(female), whitefly densities of 5, 10, 20, 30 and 40 nymphs, 5, 10, 20, 30 and 50 eggs and 5, 10, 20, 30 and 40thrips nymphs were placed in the Petri dish. The results of logistic regression showed that the functionalresponse model is type III for both egg and nymph stages of whitefly and type II for nymphs of thrips. For thripsnymphs, eggs and nymphs of whitefly, according to Roger's equation, calculated searching efficiency parameter(a′) was 0.0697, 0.01193 and 0.01072 /h, and handling time (Th) was 0.3802, 0.2686 and 4.1042 hours,respectively. Prey preference experiments were calculated using the Manley's formula. Manley index of thripslarvae (prey I) and whitefly eggs (prey II) were 0.92 and 0.08, respectively, and for thrips larvae (prey I) andwhitefly nymphs (prey II) were 0.85 and 0.15 which shows that this predator significantly prefers thrips larvae tothe other two preys. In general, the results showed that O. niger can be used as a favorable biological controlagent for thrips in cotton fields.

Cereal leaf beetle(Lema melanopa) is one of the most common pests of eastern Golestan province. Larvae often prefer the flag leaf for feeding, which has the greatest impact on the performance of wheat fields. One of the newest organic insecticides is Rui Agro (Matrin), so in this study the efficacy of Matrin at concentrations of one and two per thousand compared with Malathion and Hexaflumuron at concentrations of two per thousand and control treatment on larvae. This project was evaluated in a randomized complete block design with five treatments. Samples were taken one day before, 3, 5, 10 and 14 days after treatment and also in laboratory conditions the LC50 of Matrin on second and third instar larvae of this pest were estimated by using Polo-Pc software. The results showed that Matrine insecticide with high concentration had similar performance to Malathion and also in second concentration did not differ significantly affect with Hexaflumuron. Matrin LC50 level in second instar larvae were 57.57 ppm and for third instar larvae were calculated 106.79 ppm. Overall, the results indicate that the new insecticide Matrin ability to control this pest, as well as high-risk pesticides Malathion and can be an excellent substitute for it. Given that the origin of this insecticide from the extract of Russian knapweed, it has little effect on the environment.

In the recent decade, Lema melanopa L. has become one of the most important pests of wheat fields in Golstan province. Both adults and larvae of this pest feed on the leaves of most cereals and of course wheat and cause severe damage. Due to the lack of information about the physiology of this pest, in the present study, the biochemical properties of alpha amylase, glucosidase, galactosidase and gastrointestinal proteases from adult stage of this pest were investigated. The results showed that the highest level of optimal enzyme activity was observed in the range of 4 to 6 and the optimum temperature of 35 ° C. Electrophoresis showed two isoforms of alpha-amylase in the gut of the insect. The maximum activity of alpha and beta glucosidase enzymes and alpha and beta galactosidase of the gut was obtained in acidity 5 and in the temperature range of 35 to 45°C, respectively. The highest general protease activity was shown among gut proteases at pH 6 and at 45°C. Study Results of the effect of enzymatic inhibitors including EDTA, TLCK, TPCK, PMSF, sodium Iodo Acetate and Iodoacetic acid protease activity showed that cysteine proteinase inhibitors had the greatest inhibitory effect on enzyme activity. Therefore, it can be concluded that this group of proteases is dominant in the gut of cereal leaf beetle. By determining the biochemical properties of important gut enzymes of pest, compounds can be synthesized that are more efficient and reduce the consumption of insecticides and reduce the amount of damage to the environment.

The activity of general esterases (ESTs), catalase (CAT) and glutathione S-transferase (GST) were used to survey the in vivo responses of Glyphodes pyloalis Walker to bare carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and synthesized carbon nanotubes/titanium dioxide nanoparticles (CNTs/TiO2-NPs). These biochemical tests were performed in the three time points of exposure (i.e. 24, 48 and 72 h) and to five concentrations (i.e. 100, 200, 300, 400 and 500 ppm). Results showed that the enhancement of treated concentrations of both CNTsand CNTs/TiO2-NPs irreversibly impaired ESTs activities when α- naphthyl acetate (α-NA) used as a substrate. Using β-naphthyl acetate (β-NA) as a substrate, inhibitory effect of both CNTs and CNTs/TiO2-NPs on ESTs activities was more intense than that of α-NA. Results also demonstrated that inhibition of GST activities generating by bare CNTs and also by CNTs/TiO2-NPs was dependent to the concentrations of treatments. CAT assays showed that the increasing CNTs concentrations over exposure time could be affected by enhancement of the CAT activities in G. pyloalis. In the similar manner to bare CNTs, the increasing CNTs when coupled to TiO2-NPs (CNTs/TiO2-NPs) over exposure time could be interfered to the CAT activities. It can be concluded that these tested enzymes are good early biochemical indicators in order to prediction and management of adverse effects of bare CNTs and also CNTs when coupled to TiO2-NPs on insects.

Some derivatives of phosphoramide compounds are able to inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and therefore could be considered as insecticides. In this study, insecticidal effects of eleven phosphoramide compounds have been tested on Aphis craccivora Koch, Xanthogaleruca luteola Müller, Glyphodes pyloalis Walker and Achropus rosae Linnaeus. Among these compounds, (propylene -N, N'-bis (O, O' diethyl phosphoramidothioate) showed the highest insecticidal effect and the amount of LC50s were obtained as 3174.28, 2536.27, 3474.69 and 3627.43 mg/ml for A. craccivora, X. luteola, G. pyloalis and A. rosae, respectively. The activities of AChE and general esterases in the insects treated with these compounds were measured. Similarly the I50 of these compounds were determined in vitro on AChE activity in each insect. The results showed the lowest I50 to propylene-N, N'-bis (O, O' dimethyl phosphoramidothioate) on G. pyloalis. Today, direct relationship between chemical structure and biological activity (QSAR) has been proven. According to the information obtained from this study, we can focus on insecticidal effect of (propylene -N, N'-bis (O, O' diethyl phosphoramidothioate) derivatives in future for finding of new insecticides.

This paper is an attempt to review the ninth edition of the book entitled “International Organizations” written by Seyed Dawood Aqhaee, a valuable academic source on international organizations. Although the book is one of the first comprehensive sources dealing generally with both historical and structural perspectives, it failed to analyse the history of the League of Nations. To him, both the League of Nations and the United Nations have been puppets in the hands of great powers and thus insists to its readers on a pessimistic view for all international organizations. Information presented in the book, is not only up to dated but also with no clear reference to its origins. Almost on third of the book is on Iran and its role in the UNO while contradicts the title. This paper is to discover and reveal the shortcomings, strengths and weaknesses of the book in different textual and contextual fields of the book and to suggest some recommendations for the next edition of the book.

Insect phenoloxidase (PO) (EC 1.14.18.1) is the key enzyme in development and immunity of insects. Inhibition of this enzyme could be a new target for pest control. The lesser mulberry snout moth, Glyphodes pyloalis Walker is an important pest of mulberry trees in north of Iran. This pest feeds on mulberry leaves and causes serious problems for the silk industries. In this study, PO from hemolymph of G. pyloalis was purified by ammonium sulfate precipitation, ion exchange chromatography and gel filtration. The apparent molecular weights of two isoforms were determined by SDS-PAGE as 69.66 and 70.53 KDa. The inhibitory kinetics of PO showed that the mechanisms were competitive and mixed inhibition for 4-hexylresorcinol, kojic acid and quercetin, respectively. Optimal pH and maximum temperature for PO activity purified from G. pyloalis were 7 and 35 °C, respectively. The purified PO was stable at 40, 45 and 50 ºC for 30 min. The effects of different ions on enzyme activity showed that Zn2 had a significant inhibitory effect.

The larvae of silkworm, Bombyx mori L., were used to determine the activities of catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POD), glutathione-s-transferase (GST) and some macromolecules such as; protein and triglyceride after treatment at 24°C and 39°C. The larvae of fifth instars were treated at 39 ° C for 8 h. The humidity of experiment was set at 55% at 24˚C and increased to 75% at 39˚C. The hemolymph and fat body were removed after four days. Some economic indices were assessed like weight of one male cocoon shell, percentage of male cocoon shell, weight of male cocoon, weight of one female cocoon shell, percentage of female cocoon shell, weight of female cocoon and their mortalities. Results indicated that the higher temperature reduced all the economic indices and the amount of macromolecules. The heat also increased the activities of antioxidant enzymes. The comparison between the antioxidant enzymes and economic indices indicated that Chinese hybrid 67 is more tolerant to temperature.