فهرست مطالب ‍‍پرویز رضوانی مقدم

Saffron, is one of the most popular traditional herbs and the most expensive spice in the world. Global production of saffron is estimated at 418 tons per year on 121,338 hectares. This spice is beneficial for human health due to having three main bioactive compounds: crocin, picrocrocin and safranal. In recent years, in addition to numerous researches on various medicinal effects, due to the decrease in its production, researches on factors affecting saffron production have increased. Consequently, conducting a bibliometric analysis of publications has the potential to provide insights into current areas of interest and potential trends for future research. The purpose of this research is to reveal the research topics of the saffron field in the WoS database during the period from 2000 to 2023, which was done with the benefit of scientometric techniques. The current research community includes 3936 articles. Data analysis and drawing of the intellectual structure of knowledge was also done using R Biblioshiny and VOSviewer software. Acta Horticulturae was the most popular journal for saffron research with 216 published articles, while the American Chemical Society's Chemistry journal was the most cited. The scientometric analysis identified the most productive countries and Iran was at the top with 1015 single country publications (SCP), 155 multi-country publications (MCP) and the highest frequency of 0.297. According to the current research, the research topics related to saffron that have recently become more advanced and can be used as a basis for the authors' research include antioxidant, double-blind testing (medical), oxidative stress, inflammation, type 2 diabetes, major depressive disorder, alpha amylase, are fatty acids. This study highlights the link between collaborations and scientific developments and trends in scientific collaboration and serves as a model to show emerging research directions in the field of saffron.

Long-term use of chemical fertilizers can cause many adverse effects. In addition, excessive consumption of chemical fertilizers can lead to decreased food safety and low quality of vegetables, such as the accumulation of nitrates in plants. Today, using organic fertilizers is an efficient way to achieve sustainable agricultural development. The release rate of nutrients from organic fertilizers is slow and hardly exceeds the absorption capacity of plants compared to chemical fertilizers.

To compare the effect of chemical and organic fertilizers on the quantitative and qualitative traits of tomatoes in field conditions, an experiment was conducted in the cropping year of 2020-2021 in a randomized complete blocks design with three replications in the research farm of the Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran. Experimental treatments included: 1- biochar (8 t.ha-1), 2- animal manure (30 t.ha-1), 3- vermicompost (25 t.ha-1), 4- NPK chemical fertilizer (225 kg.ha-1 urea, 150 kg.ha-1 phosphorus fertilizer and 150 kg.ha-1 potassium sulfate), 5- 50% biochar + 50% animal manure, 6- 50% biochar + vermicompost, 7-50% animal manure + 50% vermicompost, 8- 50% biochar + 50% NPK, 9- 50% animal manure + 50% NPK, 10- 50% animal manure + 50% NPK, 11- 25% biochar + 25% animal manure + 25% vermicompost + 25% NPK and 12- control. The harvesting operation was carried out in two cutting. Five plants were randomly selected in each plot, and traits such as fruit size, length, and diameter were measured. Also, total yield, Brix index, vitamin C, and lycopene were measured in both cuttings.

In the first and second cutting, the highest fruit volume was obtained in the treatment of NPK chemical fertilizer (80.5 cm-3) and the combined use of NPK chemical + animal manure (131 cm-3), respectively. In the first cutting, the maximum fruit length was reported in the treatment of NPK chemical fertilizer (5.61 cm), and the second cutting, in the combined application of NPK chemical fertilizer + animal manure (7.16 cm) that compared to the control (4.73 cm) had a longer fruit length of 51%. The largest fruit diameter was observed in the NPK chemical fertilizer treatment (5.01 cm), which was 16% more than the control (4.31 cm). On the other hand, in the second cutting, the largest fruit diameter was shown in the combined application of chemical NPK + manure (5.54 cm). In the first cutting and the total of both cuttings, the highest yield was observed in the treatment of NPK chemical fertilizer (39.6 and 70.5 t.ha-1, respectively), while in the second cutting, the highest yield was obtained in the combined treatment of NPK chemical fertilizer + animal manure. (32.8 ton.ha-1). The results showed that using organic fertilizers individually and combinatorial compared to NPK chemical fertilizers had more Brix index, vitamin C, and lycopene. The highest amount of Brix index in first and second cutting (6.55 and 7.13, respectively), vitamin C (12.9 and 11.4 mg.100 g sample-1, respectively), and lycopene (2.48 and 2.25 mg.100 g sample-1, respectively) in the combined treatment of animal manure + vermicompost. Since the elements in the chemical fertilizer are released faster than the elements of other fertilizers and are available to the plant, therefore, by increasing the initial growth of the plant and as a result of improving its flowering potential, the total yield increased, in particular in the first cutting, where the superior treatment was the NPK chemical fertilizer. Further, due to the gradual release of organic fertilizer elements, the combined treatment of chemical and organic fertilizers increased the yield. On the other hand, organic matter plays an important role in soil fertility and performance. The rare elements in organic matter can meet the needs of soil microorganisms, enhance microbial activities, affect soil-microorganism interactions, and indirectly affect crop quality.

The use of organic fertilizer, when combined with chemical fertilizer, can enhance both the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of tomatoes. By substituting a portion of chemical fertilizer with organic fertilizer, not only can yield be improved, but it's also possible to reduce the consumption of costly chemical fertilizers. This approach aligns with sustainable agricultural goals by optimizing the use of organic fertilizers.

Chemical fertilizers have played a significant role in increasing the yield of agricultural products, especially since the 1950s, but the excessive application of these fertilizers in recent years has led to environmental pollution and a drop in agricultural productivity, food security, ecosystem and human health, and economic prosperity. Researchers believed that the best and most accessible approach to solve these problems is the improvement of the efficiency indicators of inputs. So, the purpose of the study was to evaluate the use efficiency indicators for nitrogen and phosphorus and water in wheat-irrigated and dryland systems of Iran.

In this research, provinces with more than 80% production in irrigated and rainfed systems of Iran were determined and, in each province, cities with more than 80% production of this crop were selected. The required data were collected by using face-to-face interviews and recorded statistics. Afterward, the consumption productivity of inputs was determined, and then the Pearson correlation coefficient between the productivity of different sources was computed. Also, multiple regression was used to determine the relationship between yield with climatic variables and fertilizers and water. For this purpose, the two-year average for total precipitation for irrigated and rainfed systems in each region were extracted.

The results revealed that in the main areas of wheat production, the average productivity of nitrogen consumption for irrigated was calculated as 16.69 kg of grains per kg of nitrogen compared to 17.27 kg of grains per kg of nitrogen for rainfed conditions. Contrary to nitrogen, the efficiency of phosphorus consumption in rainfed agriculture was lower than in the irrigated wheat system. Also, the highest correlation between nitrogen and phosphorus productivity for the irrigated system was computed with r=0.506 and the coefficient between nitrogen and water productivity was calculated with r=0.309 for rainfed conditions. The results for regression analysis between yield and climatic and agronomic parameters showed that increases in temperature had a positive effect on grain yield in rainfed conditions. On the other hand, increasing in other parameters such as precipitation, nitrogen, phosphorus, and irrigation in the irrigated and rainfed systems had a direct relationship with grain yield.

Excess use of nitrogen fertilizers in irrigated wheat systems led to lower nitrogen use efficiency. Although, the grain yield in irrigated conditions was higher than in dryland conditions, due to the sensitivity of using nitrogen by farmers and the adverse effects of excessive use in rainfed wheat, the consumption of nitrogen has been used with more precision and sensitivity. This ultimately led to an increase in the efficiency of nitrogen consumption in rainfed compared to irrigated systems. Unlike nitrogen, the phosphorus use efficiency was lower in rainfed compared to the irrigated system due to the direct effect of soil moisture on the release of phosphorus in the soil. According to these results, nitrogen and water were the most important factors affecting the yield in irrigated and rainfed systems. Also, the regression analysis of the relationship between wheat yield and climatic and agronomic parameters showed that in irrigated systems, nitrogen and irrigation and in rainfed conditions, nitrogen and precipitation had the most impact on grain yield.

The history of saffron cultivation in the southern and central regions of Great Khorasan spans over 750 years. Iran has now become the world's largest producer of saffron, with the majority of cultivation taking place in this country. Various biological, agronomic, and environmental factors play a role in determining saffron yield. It is believed that a decrease in saffron yield can be attributed to factors such as drought, global warming, inefficient management, and a shift towards unsustainable agricultural systems. These factors have significantly impacted saffron yield, leading to a decline in both yield and farmers' income in recent years. Therefore, the main objective of this research was to evaluate and investigate the characteristics of saffron farmers, as well as the management factors that contribute to the reduction in saffron yield in the provinces of North, Razavi, and South Khorasan, which are major production hubs for this crop.
 
This research was conducted in a descriptive manner using a questionnaire. The questionnaires were compiled through face-to-face interviews with 56 saffron farmers in three provinces during the period of 2018-2019. The interviews were conducted in Faruj, Chenaran, Neyshabur, Kashmar, and Ferdows, with 13, 9, 12, 11, and 11 farmers, respectively. The farms included in the research varied in age from 1 to 8 years, with two farms of each age in each county, resulting in a total of 16 farms per county. The research focused on factors such as the age and education level of the farmers, farm area, weight range of mother corms, and total weight of mother corms in the first year. These factors were examined separately and compared to determine their impact on yield reduction. The figures were created using Excel software.
 
In general, it appears that saffron farmers in higher latitudes tend to be younger. The percentage of farmers with university education (including associate and bachelor's degrees) was 18% overall. The education level of farmers generally decreased with age, with younger individuals having relatively higher education levels compared to older individuals. Additionally, the trend observed is that farm size tends to increase with latitude, which can be attributed to younger farmers, uncultivated land, and fewer small landowners in the northern half of Great Khorasan. The northern half of Great Khorasan also benefits from a better climate and greater access to water. Overall, farmers predominantly used medium-sized mother corms (with 4-7.99 g) for planting, with Neyshabur and Kashmar counties having the highest percentage of farms using these corms (87.5% each). As education level increases, there is a decrease in the use of medium and large corms among farmers, potentially indicating less experience among individuals with higher education. However, university-educated farmers still used more medium-sized corms than large ones. The effect of desired traits, including the cultivated area and the total weight of cultivated mother corms in the first year, on the dried yield of stigma were significant.
 
The results of this research indicate that one of the main challenges in increasing saffron yield is the advanced age and low education level of farmers. It was observed that farmers predominantly used medium-sized corms, as small corms do not yield significantly in the first year, while very large corms may experience a decrease in yield in subsequent years. Therefore, it is recommended to organize training workshops and provide technical advice through agricultural organizations in the counties. Furthermore, establishing a connection between experienced saffron farmers and beginners, as well as experts and promoters, would enhance the general and technical knowledge of saffron farmers, ultimately leading to an increased yield in Greater Khorasan.

 Changing the cultivation pattern of water-bearing crops to medicinal plants is emphasized by agricultural and rural experts due to the preservation of essential environmental resources and high added value. The present study deals with the feasibility of introducing four medicinal plants, pumpkin, black seed, asparagus, and cumin, in the cultivation pattern of farmers in Chenaran county.

 The descriptive research method is analytical, and the type of research is applied. In this study, 245 rural farmers in 16 villages were studied. 

 The farmers' acceptance of introducing medicinal plants into the cultivation pattern is low, so only 11% of the farmers had a great desire to cultivate the four proposed plants. Also, 98 percent of the farmers needed more technical knowledge in planting, growing, harvesting, processing, maintaining, and selling the proposed medicinal plants. The most important reason for farmers' failure to introduce medicinal plants into the cultivation pattern has been the government's lack of support for producing medicinal plants, drought, and problems related to the labor force. Agricultural land potential assessment showed that of the total area of 327,000 hectares in Chenaran county, 32% is suitable for cultivating asparagus, 11% for cultivating pumpkin, and 32% for cultivating cumin and black seeds.

 Since medicinal plant producers must be sure of guaranteed markets, it is necessary to increase the farmer's share in the potentially profitable value chain of the market by adopting appropriate strategies.

Innovation: 

One of the most important innovative and practical aspects of the research is to identify the degree of acceptance of farmers towards the cultivation of the proposed medicinal plants and the level of their technical knowledge in this field.

Saffron is one of the most valuable spices in the world and due to its high economic value and low water requirement, it is widely cultivated in eastern Iran. In this research, which took place in the research farm of the Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran, in 2021-2022, the AquaCrop model to simulate the yield of the saffron plant was calibrated and validated using field measurements. Therefore, soil moisture, biomass, and plant canopy cover area were measured with a relatively high time resolution during the growing season. Pearson's correlation coefficient, root mean square, error, index of agreement and Nash–Sutcliffe index for moisture simulation were 0.87, 7.8 mm, 0.92 and 0.62 respectively, plant biomass was 0.99, 0.3 t.ha-1, 0.99, 0.98 and also 0.98 , 5%, 0.98 and 0.93 were obtained for canopy cover . The sensitive stages of the saffron plant were determined by examining the changes in daughter corms weight, biomass, and water productivity during different stages of growth in response to water stress, and a revised scenario was proposed to improve field irrigation. By applying this scenario and running the model, the amount of daughter corms weight production increased from 5.550 to 7.693 t.ha-1 and biomass from 7.204 to 9.395 t.ha-1. The water productivity value also increased from 3.50 to 3.69 kg.m-3 and 85 mm was saved in water consumption.

During the 1950s and 1960s, the green revolution led to a dramatic increase in global food and fodder production to eliminate hunger and boost food security. This production enhancement was accompanied by an intensified agricultural and chemical input consumption and increased cultivated area and mechanization. Although yield per unit area has improved in most crops, concerns about food security for the world's rising population are still significant. Guaranteeing food security in the future will necessitate a shift in management approaches to boost output, agroecosystem sustainability, and stability and reduce the environmental harm caused by agriculture. The first step to achieving sustainability and ecological intensification in agricultural systems is to have a comprehensive agroecological analysis of agricultural systems in each region. Hence, the complete evaluation and analysis of agroecological features according to their type in each region is necessary for establishing an optimal management technique. After analyzing the present state of each region's shared ecosystems, the optimal strategy for boosting production stability must be devised and implemented.

The goal of this study was to undertake a detailed investigation of the agroecological state of the sugar beet ecosystems on a local scale. For this purpose, data were collected on the area under cultivation, yield, and input consumption (including nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers and chemical pesticides) from 2001 to 2016. Data was acquired from the Ministry of Agriculture and other related organizations and direct interviews with the farmers. In addition, data on climatic parameters (including daily minimum and maximum temperatures, precipitation, and sunny hours) were collected from the Torbat-e Heydariyeh meteorological station. This study researched the most important agroecological indicators of sugar beet farming systems in the Torbat-e Heydarieh region. Study indicators include variations in sugar beet cultivation area and yield, Potential yield via the methods FAO and FAO modified, beet yield gap, Regional Yield Factor trend, Changes in the intensification, yield stability, nitrogen uptake, and nitrogen utilization, and nitrogen use efficiency.

According to this study results, sugar beet production increased by 59 percent between 2001 and 2016. During the research years, sugar beet ecosystems saw a drop in the cultivation area. Potential yield calculations using both FAO and modified FAO methodologies revealed that potential yield was nearly consistent over the research period in the region.The sugar beet yield gap averaged 35 ton.ha-1 over the research period. According to the findings, the percentage of sugar beet yield gap ranged from 53 to 69 %, with an average of 63 %. The extent of the yield gap decreased over the research period. The study of the regional yield factor (RYF) revealed that improving the management system resulted in higher actual yield and thus a smaller yield gap in sugar beet ecosystems. In sugar beet cultivation systems, the results revealed that by increasing intensification, the stability decreased. In sugar beet cultivation systems, there was a reduction in yield stability. Given that nitrogen consumption efficiency is one of the most important factors influencing the degree of stability in agricultural systems, the findings revealed that the rate of nitrogen uptake efficiency (NUpE), nitrogen utilization efficiency (NUtE), and nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) all decreased during the studied years in the region.

According to the findings, the major cause of the increase in nitrogen consumption, growing intensification, and decreasing stability in the analyzed systems appears to be a deficiency of nitrogen use efficiency and its downward trend. As a result, planning and altering management methods focusing on enhancing Nitrogen use efficiency may be proposed as the first step toward boosting sustainability in the Torbat-e Heydarieh sugar beet agroecosystems.

The purpose of this experiment, evaluation of cow manure and irrigation levels on flower and corms of saffron using Central Composite Design was done with 13 treatments and two replications at the Research Field of the Ferdowsi University of Mashhad during two growing seasons of 2017-2018 and 2018-2019. The treatments were based on low and high cow manure levels (0 and 80 t.ha-1, respectively) and water (120 and 50 percent of water requirement, respectively). The results showed that the linear component's effect was significant on (p≤0.05) daughter corm diameter and numbers of daughter corms for 4-8 g. The square component's effect was significant on (p≤0.05) flower number, fresh weight of flower, the dried weight of stigma, and daughter corm diameter. The interaction effect of full quadratic was significant (p≤0.05) on the dried weight of daughter corms. Lack of fit test had no significant effect on the studied traits. The response variables' full square model gave insignificant lack-of-fit, indicating that the data were satisfactorily explained. The highest values of dried weight of stigma, fresh weight of flower, and flower number were observed for 16 t cow manure per ha+ 5440 m3 water per ha (with, respectively 0.65 and 27.75 g.m-2and 60 No.m-2). The maximum amount for dried weight of daughter corms was observed for 32 t cow manure per ha+ 3200 m3 water per ha (with 4463.31 g.m-2). It is necessary to use 4693.33 m3 water per ha 30.12 t cow manure per ha to obtain optimum conditions under the economic scenario (with desirability index= 0.72).

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is a perennial plant of the Iridaceae family and is cultivated in Iran, Morocco, India, Greece, Italy, and Spain. Iran is considered the main producer of saffron, with the most optimum climate for saffron. Today, the dramatic increase in food production in the world requires high amounts of chemical fertilizers. However, some of the adverse effects of chemical fertilizer overuse in conventional farming practices have been well reported. In this regard, manure can be a good alternative, which can guarantee both agricultural production and nature protection. Potassium is one of the most important nutrients for plant growth after nitrogen. In spice plants, potassium indirectly improves nitrogen utilization and protein formation, flower size, flower yield, oil content, color, etc. in spice plants. This study investigated the effect of different animal manures in combination with different levels of potassium sulfate on saffron flower criteria.

The factorial experiment was carried out based on a randomized complete block design with three replications at the agricultural lands of Jovein County, during the three cropping years of 2015-16, 2016-17, and 2017-18. The first factor includes three types of organic manure: laying poultry manure (5 and 10 ton.ha-1), broiler poultry manure (5 and 10 t.ha-1) and cow manure (20 and 40 ton.ha-1) and control (without the use of organic manure) and the second factor includes different amounts of potassium sulfate fertilizer (0, 100 and 150 kg.ha-1). The basis for determining the consumption of each organic fertilizer was applied based on the recommended nitrogen and soil test. Saffron was cultivated in September 2015 in the length of 3 m and width of 1 m plots. Flower yield was determined randomly from 40 × 50 cm-2 quadrates. Data analysis and figure drawing were performed using SAS 9.1 and MS-Excel software.

The results of analysis of variance in two years showed that the effect of animal manure and potassium sulfate and their interaction were significant on the number of flowers, total flower weight, stigma dry weight, and style dry weight. Also, potassium sulfate and manure's main effects and interaction were significant on the dry weight of flowers without stigma and style in the second year. However, the main effects of potassium sulfate and manure significantly affected on the dry weight of flowers without stigma and style, but their interaction was not significant in the third year. The highest number of flowers was obtained in the treatment of 150 kg.ha-1 potassium sulfate and 40 ton.ha-1 cow manure in the second year, and it was obtained in the treatment of 150 kg.ha-1 potassium sulfate ten ton.ha-1 laying poultry manure in the third year. The highest total flower weight belonged to the treatment of 150 kg.ha-1 potassium sulfate and 10 ton.ha-1 was laying poultry manure in second and three years. The highest stigmas dry weight was observed in 100 kg.ha-1 potassium sulfate and 40 ton.ha-1 cow manure treatment in the second year, and the highest amount of this trait was related to the treatment of 100 kg.ha-1 potassium sulfate and ten ton.ha-1 broiler poultry manure in the third year. The results of this experiment indicate that the application of animal manures and potassium sulfate combination has positive effects on improving the yield of saffron flowers and eco-friendliness. It seems that the combination of animal manures and chemical fertilizers can reduce the use of chemical fertilizers.

The results of this study showed that the best treatment for most traits was 150 kg.ha-1 potassium sulfate and 40 ton.ha-1 cow manure interaction treatment in the second and third years, and then the 150 kg.ha-1 potassium sulfate and ten ton.ha-1 laying poultry manure treatment could be mentioned as the superior treatment. In general, according to the findings of this study, it seems that the simultaneous application of optimal amounts of ecological inputs and chemical fertilizers of potassium sulfate can reduce the destructive effects caused by excessive use of chemical fertilizers on this valuable medicinal plant while improving the properties of saffron flowers.

Potato is one of the most valuable food products. Indeed, no product has the capacity to produce energy per unit area compared with it. Potato has been an important part of the diet in most countries, especially in developing countries. Conventional cropping systems emphasize short-term goals such as high profitability and yield, and their maintenance costs are maximized due to the use of external inputs such as fertilizers and chemical pesticides, so with no use of external inputs, yield is greatly reduced. On the other hand, sustainable farming systems are systems that rely on low-energy inputs and small amounts of chemicals for long-term production stability and environmental adaptation. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of different cropping system management on yield, yield components and weed diversity in potato cultivation.

This experiment was conducted during the two years of 2015-2016 and 2016-2017 in the farm of Ran-Firoozkooh Cooperation Ltd., located at 10 km east of city of Firoozkooh city. The experiment was conducted as split plot arrangement based on a randomized complete block design with four replications. In this research, various agricultural management assigned to the main plots and weeding and no-weeding operations were allocated to the sub plots. Cropping systems include the high input, medium input, low input and ecological. At the early June, the potato seed tubers were planted in plots of 15 × 6 m (with a distance of 70 cm between the rows, 22 cm on the rows) in all cropping systems. At the end of the growing season (Oct, 1) potato tubers were harvested. Data were analyzed using SAS 9.1 and figures were prepared using MS-EXCEL software.

Mean comparisons showed that the highest single tuber weight (87.6 g) obtained from high input system, which was 26% higher than the low input system. The results also indicated that the weight of single tuber was increased with increasing weed control, so that the highest rate of this trait was obtained from weeding treatments. In the ecological system, the yield of the tuber in the weed control treatment was significantly different than the weedy treatment. The highest amount of tuber yield was resulted in the high input system and in weeding treatment which was significantly higher than the ecological system and the weedy treatment. In the high input system, more access to nutrients (NPK) resulting in improved yield and growth component. The phosphorus used in the high input system has different roles such as cell division, fertilization and development of reproductive organs. This can improve root and tuber development and increase water absorption and nutritional elements. Another reason for the increased yield in medium and high-input cropping systems could be assigned to the reduction of weed density in these systems. Means comparison showed that the nitrogen content of tuber in the high input system was 1.34%, which was higher than the low input system by 13%. The highest level of this trait was obtained in weeding. Plants grown in the high-input system stored more of nitrogen in their tissues due to the higher input of nitrogen fertilizer. Dzida and Jarosz (2006) reported that in a greenhouse experiment, the application of nitrogen fertilizer had a positive effect on nitrogen accumulation in the shoots of savory (Satureja hortensis). On the other hand, Derakhshan et al. (2018) stated that increasing nitrogen fertilizer is not only not beneficial to the crop, but also complicates the weed problem, in which case weeds absorb nutrients faster and more than the crop. There was a negative correlation between increasing the use of inputs and Shannon-Wiener index, so that ecological system (1.32), which was without the use of inputs, had the highest rate of this index and the lowest one was observed in the high input system (0.87). The main reason for the loss of biodiversity in conventional farms compared with low and ecological systems seems to be the intensification of agricultural operations, which is associated with excessive consumption of inputs, including herbicides.

In general, the results of this study showed that with increasing input, yield and yield components of potatoes increased. The results also showed that the highest amount of nitrogen was observed in tubers, potato shoots and also in weed tissues in the high input system and therefore it can be suggested that more use of chemical fertilizers has resulted in more nitrogen storage in different plant tissues. On the other hand, with the decrease in the input in ecological and low-input systems, the amount of Shannon-Wiener diversity index increased so that the highest amount of this index was observed in ecological and low-input systems. Considering the reduction of environmental pollution in ecological systems, it seems that such systems are environmentally friendly and if such services can be valued, the ecological system will be more superior compared with the conventional ones.

Over the past few decades, agriculture has experienced rapid intensification in agricultural ecosystems. Although, this production pattern has significantly improved the yield of some crops, but has also led to an uncontrolled increase in the consumption of various chemical inputs. Agricultural activities are always dependent on natural resources and therefore have complex relationships with the environment. Evidence shows that the negative consequences of these activities, which are due to increased application of chemical inputs (such as fertilizers and pesticides) and fossil fuels, land use change and tightening of agricultural operations, increase the incidence of pollution. Global warming and climate change, natural habitat loss and endangered biodiversity. Indigenous knowledge is well recognized for its contribution to global warming and climate change adaptation strategies, and natural resource conservation. The present study aimed to compare the environmental impacts of low input (as a local production system) and conventional (as a high input farming system) saffron systems in Razavi Khorasan province, Iran. 

The required data related to saffron yield and management methods in low input and conventional systems in Razavi Khorasan province were collected from the Ministry of Jihad Agriculture, saffron farmers and different organizations in charge of agriculture. Data (as a 7-year perennial crop) were collected by using a face-to-face questionnaire. Four phases, such as goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, impact assessment, and interpretation, were designed to assess the life cycle indicator based on the ISO14044 procedure. Four main categories as impacts, including global warming, acidification, and eutrophication (terrestrial and aquatic) were defined. The functional unit was considered as a one-kg flower yield. N2ODirect, N2OIndirect, N2Oleaching, and N2Ovolatilization were computed for the production systems. K2 and Pearson coefficients were computed. 

The results showed that the conventional system's flower yield was higher than the low input farming system, up to 71 percent. Aquatic eutrophication potential for the conventional system was computed with 15.07 kg PO4 eq./ per kg of flower higher than other management systems up to 34%. Environmental indicators for low input and conventional production systems were calculated with 2.72 and 3.51 Ecox per per kg of flower, respectively. The share on impact categories such as global warming, acidification, terrestrial eutrophication, and aquatic eutrophication were calculated with 16, 7, 8 and 69 percent from the conventional system's Ecox. The values were computed with 17, 7, 8, and 68 percent from the low input system's Ecox. The relationship between flower yield and fuel, nitrogen and fuel, nitrogen and phosphorus, and manure and yield was significant. The highest Pearson coefficient was calculated for flower yield and fuel with +0.824. The amount of CO2 emission in the low input system was equal to 312.15 kg equivalent of CO2 per kg of flower yield, which was 95% higher than the conventional system. On the other hand, the emissions of CH4 and N2O in the conventional system were 322.88 and 4913.94 kg, respectively, equivalent to CO2 per kg of flower yield, which is 31 and 28% higher than the emissions of these greenhouse gases in the system under management was low input. The global warming potential for the conventional management system was equal to 5262.67 kg equivalent of CO2 per kg of flower yield, which was 18% higher than the low input system. 

Based on the results, it is suggested that the implementation of conservation tillage methods, consumption of low inputs and more efficient irrigation systems be used in saffron production systems, which reduces consumption of fossil fuels as well as soil low input matter recovery and in the long run can have a significant impact on reducing the use of chemical fertilizers, especially nitrogen fertilizers. The integration of conservation tillage, indigenous knowledge, and traditional management based on women farmers are valuable contributions for global warming and climate change strategies, sustainable agriculture, natural resource and water management conservation especially in high input saffron agroecosystems.

An experiment based on CRD design with three replications was conducted in 2014 year, in Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran. The experimental treatments included 7 types of eco-friendly inputs: Humic acid, Fulvic acid, Nitroxin (contains Azotobacter spp. And Azospirillum spp. Bacterias), Biophosphorous (contains Bacillus sp. And Pseudomonas sp. bacterias), Biosulfur (contains Thiobacillus spp. Bacteria), Glomus mosseae, Glomus intraradices, and control. The results showed that organic acids of humic and fulvic increased germination percentage 25 and 20% and germination rate 58 and 33% compared to control, respectively. Germination percentage was 20, 25, and 24% more in biofertilizers of nitroxin, biophosphorous and biosulfur compared to control, respectively and germination rate under application of this fertilizers added 59, 24, and 50% compared to control, respectively. Humic acid, fulvic acid, nitroxin, biophosphorous, biosulfur, Glomus mosseae and Glomus intraradices reduced mean germination time 33, 35, 38, 19, 36, 36, and 16% compared to control, respectively. The highest radicle and plumule length obtained in treatment of humic acid and the highest radicle to plumule length observed in treatment of biosulfur. Fulvic acid increased radicle and plumule dry weight 51 and 38% compared to control, respectively. The highest and the lowest radicle to plumule dry weight obtained in treatments of Glomus intraradices (0.199) and control (0.124), respectively.

Physalis alkekengi is a well-known medicinal plant in Europe and Asia and especially in the northeastern of China. It is an economically valuable plant that can tolerate drought, waterlogging, and warm and cold temperatures. All parts of P. alkekengi could be used as medicine. P. alkekengi is a rich source of complex antioxidants, which has been suggested for the treatment of several diseases such as inflammation and rheumatism. The availability of water is the primary constraint on food production in arid and semi-arid regions. Trends of water availability indicated that agricultural activities are approaching a “water crisis” in the Middle East and North Africa. In Iran, water is a scarce resource due to the high variability of rainfall. Water stress effects on growth and yield are species is well known. Optimizing irrigation management, together with the appropriate crops, is suitable in these regions. So the aims of this study were to the effect of different irrigation levels and manure amount on yield, yield components, and fruit quality of Physalis alkekengi.

In order to investigate the effects of irrigation and animal manure levels on yield and yield components of Chinese lantern (Physalis alkekengi L.), a split-plot experiment was conducted based on randomized complete block design with three replications at the research field of the faculty of agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran at 2016. The experimental treatments were all combination of irrigation levels (60, 80 and 100 percent of water requirement) and four levels of animal manure (0, 10, 20 and 30 t. ha-1). Final seed yield and yield components were measured from 1 m of each plot. Characters consisted of weight of fruit per plant, number of fruit per plant, fruit weight, number of seed per fruit, 1000 seed weight, plant height, alkaloid, biological yield, and fruit yield.Data from the experiment were analyzed statistically using SAS software (Ver. 9.2). Least significant difference (LSD) test were also performed for the comparison of means. The critical difference at P = 0.05 was used to test the difference between means of individual treatments.

Our results indicated that, irrigation levels had a significant effect on all studied traits except fruit number and single fruit weight. Also, the impact of animal manure was significant on all characteristics, except 1000 seed weight. The interactions between irrigation and animal manure were significant on fruit yield, biological yield, harvest index, and fruit weight per plant. The highest fruit weight per plant (101 and 102 gr respectively) and fruit yield (8 and 8.2 t.ha-1 respectively) were observed in 100 percent water requirement with use of 20 and 30 t.ha-1 animal manure. The highest alkaloid percent was observed in 80 percent water requirement (0.4 percent) and 30 t.ha-1 animal manure level (0.37 percent).

Based on the results of this study, irrigation levels and manure levels had a significant effect on measured traits. The best of results was observed in irrigation of 80 % and 100 % of water requirement. On the other hand, the application of manure, especially 20 and 30 t.ha-1, improved the studied traits compared to 0 and 10 ton. According to the results of this research and considering the optimal use of resources, the most suitable method for the planting of this plant was considered by using 80 percent water requirement and 20 t.ha-1 animal manure.

Purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.) is an annual and C4 plant that belongs to the family of Portulacaceae. The plant is drought- and salt-tolerant which contains high amounts of beneficial omega-3 fatty acids and antioxidant vitamins. Nitrogen is the key element in soil fertility and crop production. Attention to the soil quality and health has increased in recent years, especially for sustainable production of medicinal crops. So that, for production of healthy food in industrialized countries, using natural and on-farm inputs has been considered. One of the practical ways to achieve this goal is organic and biofertilizers. Given the importance of Purslane as a medicinal plant and due to the fact that there is not detailed information about the nitrogen requirement for this plant, this study was conducted to effect of organic, biological and chemical fertilizers on yield,  N and P use efficiency Purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.) in Birjand, Iran 

In order to investigate the effect of organic, biological and chemical fertilizers on the yield and yield components of purslane seed, an experiment was conducted in a factorial randomized complete block design with three replications in Birjand University Research Farm in crop years 2015-2016 and 2017- 2018. Experimental treatments were based on a combination of four sources of nitrogen supply: cow manure, vermicompost, fertilizer (NPK) and control (without any fertilizer application), and four types of biofertilizer including: nitroxin (including azotobacter and azospirillum), mycorrhiza (Glomus intraradices), Biosulfur (including thiobacillus with sulfur) and control (without any fertilizer). The traits studied in this experiment included: biomass yield, grain yield, nitrogen and phosphorus biomass percentage, nitrogen and phosphorus biomass content, nitrogen and phosphorus uptake efficiency, seed based nitrogen and phosphorus uptake efficiency, agronomic efficiency of nitrogen and phosphorus based They were. 

The results showed that the effect of nitrogen sources on all studied traits (except physiological grain nitrogen efficiency) was significant. The highest grain yield (1959.99 kg.ha-1) and biomass yield (9782.43 kg.ha-1) were obtained from NPK treatment with no significant difference with cow manure. Also, the most nitrogen efficiency indices were obtained from NPK treatment. However, no significant difference was observed between agronomic efficiency of grain and cow manure. The highest phosphorus content and biomass phosphorus content were obtained from NPK treatment. However, with the use of organic and chemical fertilizers, the efficiency of phosphorus use decreased. The effect of biofertilizers on most of the studied traits (except biomass P percent) was not significant. Interaction of nitrogen sources and biofertilizers was significant on most of the studied traits (except grain yield, agronomic efficiency of N and P). 

Based on the results of this experiment, considering the environmental effects and increasing the efficiency of nitrogen use for sustainable production of purslane seed in Birjand region can be used as fertilizer replacement (NPK).

Proper planting date and irrigation rate are the most important factors for better use of rainfall and soil moisture and thus increase crop yield. Production of medicinal and aromatic plants and the demand for natural products in the world is increasing, so that the twentieth century has been named as a return to nature and the century of using herbal medicines. Proper growth and development of medicinal plants in agricultural conditions requires knowledge of the ecological characteristics of these plants, careful study of planting techniques and the use of agricultural inputs, especially irrigation, fertilizers, suitable planting and harvesting times and their management. Such factors also affect the amount of secondary metabolites in medicinal plants. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of four planting dates and four irrigation rates on the yield traits of isabgol in Sarakhs.

In order to investigate the effect of irrigation levels and planting dates on the growth characteristics and yield of isabgol (Plantago Ovata L.) as a medicinal plant, a field experiment was performed in Research station, Sarakhs, Khorasan Razavi province during growth season 2015-16. This experiment was performed as strip plots based on a randomized complete block design with three replications. Irrigation treatments at four levels of 40, 60, 80, and 100% of the water requirements were placed in horizontal plots and four planting dates were on March 5, 2016, March 20, 2016, April 3, 2016 and April 18, 2016 in vertical plots. Irrigation was applied as furrow system at every 7 days. Irrigation treatments were applied at the time of complete establishment of seedlings in 3-4 leaf stage and continued until physiological maturity stage. The amount of irrigation water in each irrigation turn was calculated by AGWAT software. Measured traits included leaf area index, crop growth rate, dry matter accumulation, plant height, number of spikes per plant, number of seeds per plant, 1000-seed weight, grain yield, biological yield and harvest index.

The results of growth indicators showed that the maximum leaf area index (3.4 and 3.3), the crop growth rate (22.12 and 22.18 g m-2 d-1) and the accumulation of dry matter (444.9 and 445.4 g m-2) were obtained in the treatments of 100% and 80% of the water requirements, respectively. Also, the maximum leaf area index and crop growth rate were observed in the treatments of April 18 and April 3 (1.86 and 2). The treatments of March 20 and 5 also had the highest crop growth rate (14 and14 g m-2 d-1) and dry matter accumulation (270 and 261.3 g m-2). The results also showed that the interaction effects on plant height, number of seeds per plant, 1000-seed weight, grain yield, biological yield, and harvest index were significant at the 1% level of probability. Maximum plant height (24.57 cm) was obtained in the 100% of the water requirement and planting date of March 20 treatment. The highest number of seeds per plant (1210.36), grain yield (1891.4 kg), biological yield (5607.8 kg), number of spikes per plant (29.67) and 1000-seed weight (2.05 g) were obtained in the treatments of 80% of water requirement and planting date on March 20.The highest harvest index (36.4%) belonged to the treatment of 100% of water requirement and planting date on March 5.

general, it can be concluded that different characteristics of isabgol plant were affected by planting date and irrigation water amount so that with a delay in planting date and also reducing the amount of irrigation water, growth and yield characteristics were significantly reduced. As a result, deficit irrigation at 80% of the crop water requirement and planting date of March 20 were more effective in saving irrigation water along with a good yield of the isabgol plant compared to 100% of the crop water requirement treatment in the study area.

The issue of maximizing crop yields through excessive consumption of chemical inputs and high costs in the production of these products has led agricultural experts and analysts find a suitable way to integrate technology and conserve natural resources in order to create a favorable environment for the optimal use of available resources, reduce environmental problems and increase yields per unit area and provide greater profitability in agriculture (Ratek et al., 2004). On the other hand, Iran's location in arid and semi-arid climates has caused the soil of most areas to be poor in organic matter and this is one of the problems that can be effective in reducing performance and increasing production costs (Chegni et al., 2014). So it seems maintaining of sufficient amount of plant residues in the soils is an effective way to overcome the soil quality threats. This research was carried out with the aim of investigating the effects of different cropping systems management and wheat residues on grain yield and efficiency indices of nitrogen and phosphor in autumnal rapeseed. The experiment was conducted as strip split plot based on randomized complete block designs in three replications in 2015-2016 in two locations (Sarableh and Roumeshgan) in southern west of Iran. The first factor was cropping systems in three levels as low input (one disk + 25% of plant nutrient requirement as fertilizer + two stages manual weed control), Mid input (one plowing + one disk+ 50% of plant nutrient requirement as fertilizer+one stage manually and one stage using herbicide to weeds control) and full input (two plowing +two disk + 100% of plant nutrient requirement as fertilizer+ two stages herbicide to weeds control). The second factor was wheat residues managements in four levels of 0 as control, 2, 4 and 6 t.ha-1. The required fertilizer was calculated based on the results of soil analysis so that 100 kg of superphosphate and 200 kg of urea in Romeshgan and 150 kg of superphosphate and 300 kg of urea in Sarablah were required. To control weeds in the low input system, two stages of mechanical weeding in 7 and 45 days after planting, in the medium input system, one stage of chemical control (terflan) at the same time as planting and one stage of mechanical weeding in 45 days after planting, and in the full input system, two stages of spraying simultaneously with planting (Terflan) and 45 days after planting (Lontrol + Supergalant) were performed. Finally, after calculating grain and biological yield, uptake efficiency, utilization efficiency and nutrient use efficiency were determined.After testing the uniformity of variance using Bartlett test, the combined analysis of data was performed by SAS 9.1 software.Results and DiscussionThe results showed that in low input management with increasing wheat residues, the phosphor and nitrogen use efficiency was decreased so that in the treatments of four and six tons of residues per hectare compared to non-residues, respectively, nitrogen productivity of 15 and 22 percent and phosphor productivity of 15 and 20 percent were significantly decreased. With the move of crop system management towards high input management, the positive effect of low residue levels on nutrient use efficiency was determined so that in high input management, the highest efficiency of nitrogen and phosphorus consumption was obtained with 12.3 kg of grain per kg of nitrogen and 30.3 kg of grain per kg of phosphorus from treatments of four tons of wheat residues, respectively. The results also indicated that in all treatments, the effect of nitrogen and phosphorus uptake efficiency was higher than their utilization efficiency on the use efficiency of each of these nutrients. Therefore, the management of crop systems based on increasing the uptake efficiency of each nutrient in rapeseed cultivation can play a decisive role in increasing yield.In general, the results showed that with increasing the entrance of inputs and crop system management the uptake and use efficiency of nitrogen and phosphorus increased, but nutrient utilization efficiency was maximized in medium input management. It was also found that with increasing the application of wheat residues to the soil, the efficiency of uptake and use of nitrogen and phosphorus nutrients indicated a decreasing trend.

 The optimum resource level in agro-ecosystems should be determined to decrease production costs, conserve resources, and mitigate environmental pollutions. Optimization is an effective and sustainable management approach to conserve resources and decline environmental pollutions. Response surface methodology (RSM) is defined as a collection of mathematical and statistical techniques used to develop, improve, or optimize a product. RSM is a statistical technique for optimization of multiple factors that determine optimum rates by combining experimental designs. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a pseudocereal, seed-producing annual crop, and a staple food in South America in ancient times, indigenous to the Andean region of South America, particularly Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and parts of Chile, which has the potential to grow with low inputs, mostly water and tolerate a variety of biotic and abiotic stresses. Quinoa seed is gluten-free foods, good sources of carbohydrates, good-quality proteins, lipids, vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds, with all the essentials, trace elements, and many vitamins. In this work, optimization of nitrogen and water rates on quinoa was done.

An experiment was conducted using Central Composite Design (CCD) with 13 treatments and two replications at the Research Field of the Ferdowsi University of Mashhad during the growing season of 2017-2018. The treatments were allocated based on low and high water (2500 and 7500 m3 ha-1, respectively) and nitrogen (0 and 200 kg ha-1, respectively) levels. Seed yield, biological yield, N recovery, N use efficiency (NUE), and water use efficiency (WUE) were calculated as dependent variables, and changes of these variables were evaluated by a regression model. A lack-of-fit test was used to evaluate the quality of the fitted model. The adequacy of the model was tested by analysis of variance. The quality of the fitted models was judged using the determination coefficient (R2). Finally, the optimum nitrogen and water rates were computed based on economic, environmental, and economic-environmental scenarios.

The results showed that the effect of linear and square components was significant on all studied characteristics. The interaction effect of full quadratic was significant on NUE and WUE. Lack of fit test had no significant effect on the studied traits. The full square model for the response variables gave insignificant lack-of-fit, indicating that the data were satisfactorily explained. Surface-response results of the effect of irrigation and nitrogen levels on grain yield and biological yield showed that with increasing nitrogen consumption and irrigation, quinoa yield indices increased, but in terms of nitrogen use, with increasing nitrogen consumption more than 100 kg ha-1, the grain yield increased with more slope. The highest value of seed yield was observed for 7500 m3 ha-1 irrigation and 200 kg nitrogen ha-1 with 3835.4 kg ha-1. Optimum nitrogen and water rates were suggested to determine the target range of dependent variables based on three scenarios: economic, environmental, and eco-environmental. It is necessary to use 169.7 kg nitrogen ha-1 and 7500 m3 ha-1 irrigation to obtain optimum conditions under the economic scenario. The optimum nitrogen and irrigation rates based on environmental scenarios were computed from 18.18 kg nitrogen ha-1 and 3409 m3 ha-1 irrigation water. Application of 88.57 kg nitrogen ha-1 and 5909 m3 ha-1 irrigation water was found to be the optimum conditions for the eco-environmental scenario (NUE, N recovery, seed yield, and WUE were calculated with 15.93 kg seed kg-1 N, 50.04%, 3120.76 kg ha-1, and 0.5 kg seed m-3 water, respectively).

Increasing nitrogen led to increased seed yield and decreased nitrogen use efficiency, whereas increasing irrigation caused an increase in seed yield and nitrogen use efficiency. In general, it seems that resource use based on the eco-environmental scenario may be a suitable cropping approach for the sustainable production of quinoa as a new crop.

Sustainable development of saffron production as one of the major and strategic goals of Iranian agriculture requires a well-defined and organized plan. Over the past half century saffron cultivation has increased 34-fold in Iran, more than any other crop. But the average yield did not follow this development and is reducing with slight negative slope; so, the average saffron production in Iran has reduced from 5.76 kg/ha in 1973 to 3.42 kg/ha in 2017. It is also estimated that there is a 90-70% yield gap in Iranian saffron farms. Saffron pests and diseases such as saffron mite (Rhizoglyphus robini), saffron corm rot, saffron dry rot (Burkholderia gladioli) and saffron viral diseases are also responsible for quantitative and qualitative reduction of saffron yields in farms. Saffron is propagated by its daughter corms, so increasing the yield of saffron is directly related to the quality of mother corm seed. This paper describes the criteria’s needs to generate and certify prebasic, mother corm and seed corm classes of saffron for standard saffron corm schedule. Production of standard pathogen-free seed corms as the only means of saffron propagation in nature is a prerequisite for any planning to increase saffron yield. Undoubtedly, application of standard free pathogen corms along with other ecological and physiological indices of saffron plant will increase yield and improve Sustainable development indicators.

Natural and semi-natural features including those as patches and marginal elements, construct a network of habitats referred to as green vein elements. In the green veining, the linear elements connect the different parts of the network, while the patches have a role as nodes within the network. These networks potentially place a vast range of biodiversity and play an important role as a refuge for sensitive organisms as well as some habitat specialist species. With regards to crop production and pest management in agricultural fields, pollinators and biological control agents, like predators, are among the most beneficial organisms mostly found in green vein elements. As the biodiversity in agroecosystems is considerably declining, this study was conducted to address the important role of natural and semi-natural elements of the landscape in biodiversity conservation.
 

The study area was an agricultural landscape located in Gilane-Gharb County, Kermanshah Province, Iran with a Mediterranean climate. The level of agricultural intensification (AI) was surveyed through interviewing the farmers and considering the indicators such as chemical and organic fertilizers (Kg N/ha/year), pesticide input (utilization frequency of e.g. herbicides, insecticides and fungicides) and the number of tillage operations and mechanical weed control. by providing the geographic map of the area and frequent field observation, seven different types of patches and marginal habitats were identified, including: 1) arable and horticultural fields (Fi); linear elements adjacent to the fields including: 2) within field edges (W.F.E) and 3) non-crop field edges (N.F.E); 4) roads; ditches including 5) permanent ditches (P.D) , 6) non-permanent ditches (N.P.D) , and 7) woody greenvein (W.Gr) element. 87 sample plots (2 m × 2 m) were recorded in all the elements. Vegetation data from fields were recorded using 18 sample plots; woody green vein 19 sample plots; and other marginal habitats including within field edges, non-crop field edges, permanent ditches, non-permanent ditches and roads, were sampled by 50 plots. Sampling was done based on systematic-randomized method. Two emergent groups of plant species were introduced regarding their response to land use intensification: Agrotolerant and Nature-value species.The calculated biodiversity indices were: Jackknife species richness, Shannon-wiener, Simpson and Brillion diversity indices, Camargo and Smith-Wilson Evenness, and finally Sorenson Similarity index using Ecological Methodology software.

The calculated agricultural intensification index (AI) was 49.56; this score was at the range of high intensified agricultural utilization (High AI). Mean observed value of nitrogen input was 211.36 kg/ha, the weighted frequency of tillage operations and pesticide application per hectare was the same as 2.36. Apart from crop species, a total of 87 vascular plants were recorded in the agricultural landscape. The highest species richness was for agricultural fields (43 species), which followed by non-crop field edges (37), woody greenveins (32), within field edges (30), permanent ditches (26), non-permanent ditches (23) and roads (22). Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.  (46.56% of the total frequency of individuals existing in the field sample plots) was the most frequent species in the landscape. 21 species were recorded as agrotolerant species. Jackknife species richness was 48.7 in the fields as the most, and 23.8 in the road verges as the minimum. Woody Green veins (W.Gr) had the most number of unique species. The most Shannon-wiener and Brillion diversity indices were recorded for agrotolerant and nature-value species in within field edges (Shannon-wiener: 2.03 and Brillion: 1.85) and fields (2.52 and 3.08) respectively. Sorenson similarity index revealed that the elements inhabiting high number of agrotolerant species had a similar spatial condition especially regarding being adjacent to the agricultural fields. Studies reported the outstanding benefits of greenvein elements in promoting plant biodiversity and as a result enhancing diversity of organisms which inhabit in such elements.

The study indicated the effect of agricultural intensification and types of land use throughout the landscape on biodiversity. Elements with high connectivity to natural or seminatural habitats had the most positive effect on biodiversity of plant spesies. To gain the targets of sustainability in agroecosystems, providing as much as possible natural and semi-natural habitats and corridors are suggested.

 In recent decades, agricultural production has largely relied on the use of chemical inputs, which has led to major environmental problems. Destruction of water and soil resources, deterioration of agricultural biodiversity, air and water pollution by chemical fertilizers and pesticides are only part of the environmental problems caused by common agricultural use of chemical inputs. One of the solutions to this problem is to apply sustainable farming principles in agricultural ecosystems. Soil management is one of the main factors in achieving sustainable agriculture. Therefore, the gradual replacement of chemical fertilizers with organic and biofertilizers will help to meet the nutritional needs of plants, improve the physical, chemical and biological conditions of the soil and prevent the adverse environmental effects of chemical applications. Organic matter has been recognized as one of the nutrients of plant nutrition and fertility due to its constitutive effects on soil physiological and biological properties. Organic fertilizers are the most important source of organic matter in the rhizosphere of plants. Black seed is an annual, dicotyledonous, herbaceous, medicinal plant belonging to the Ranunculaceae family. Environmental conditions and soil fertility are one of the factors affecting grain yield, quantity and quality of essential oil and oil produced in black seed. Since there is not much research on the effect of humic acid and fulvic acid on black seed, therefore, attention to the management of nutritional needs of black seed with emphasis on the use of biological and organic fertilizers in the successful cultivation of this plant is inevitable.

In order to evaluate the effects of organic, biological and chemical fertilizers on yield, yield components and oil yield of black seed, a field experiment was conducted at Research Station, Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran, during the growing season of 2011-2012. The experimental layout was factorial based on randomized complete block design with three replications. Experimental treatments included all combinations of organic and biological fertilizers factor in four levels (biosulfure + 100 kg.ha-1 sulphor, humic acid (7 kg.ha-1), fulvic acid (7 kg.ha-1) and control) and chemical and animal manure factor in three levels (chemical fertilizer (NPK (80:40:30 kg.ha-1, respectively), animal manure (20 t.ha-1) and control). In order to determine the oil content, 5 grams of grain were randomly selected from the grains harvested from each plot and then oil content was determined by Soxhlet. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and regression analysis of the data from the experiment and drawing of shapes were performed using SAS and MSTAT software's. Comparisons of means were performed at 1 and 5% probability level using Duncan multiple range test.

The Results showed that studied factors and their interactions had significant effect on number of seed per plant, seed weight/plant, seed yield and oil yield. The highest plant height, number of branch per plant, number of follicles per plant, number of seeds per follicles , number of seeds per plant, seed weight per plant, seed yield and oil yield (59 cm, 5.8,7.8,72, 594,1.075g, 2.2 (t.ha-1), 517 (kg.ha-1), respectively) were observed in chemical fertilizer + biosulfur biofertilizer treatment and  the lowest mentioned traits (49 cm, 3.01, 3.92, 39.8, 194, 0.445, 0.935 (t.ha-1), 221 (kg.ha-1) respectively) were observed in control treatment. The highest and lowest harvest indexes were observed in animal fertilizer + humic acid (49%) and control (25.6%) treatments, respectively. The highest and lowest oil percentages were observed in animal fertilizer + humic acid (49%) and control (25.6%) treatments, respectively. The results indicated that the use of humic and fulvic acids, and biosulfur biofertilizer alone or in combination with chemical fertilizers and animal manure improve the quantity and quality of Nigella sativa characteristics.

The results of this study revealed that considering the positive response of the black seed to application of organic and biological fertilizers, applying these fertilizers while reducing the use of chemical fertilizers as well as having no adverse environmental effects is an appropriate method for sustainable production and environmental protection.

 Purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.) is an annual and C4 plant that belongs to the family of Portulacaceae that is tolerant to drought and salt stresses which contains high amounts of beneficial omega-3 fatty acids and antioxidant vitamins. Adaptation to both dry and saline conditions makes Purslane a prime candidate as a vegetable in areas with dry conditions and salty soils, often present together where land is irrigated. Purslane seeds provide nutritional value and have beneficial health effects on the body, especially in preventing cardiovascular, cancer, and hypertension (high blood pressure) diseases, because it contains omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids and other nutrients like antioxidants, tocopherols, and dietary fiber. Nitrogen is a key element in soil fertility and crop production. Recently, attention to the soil quality and health has increased, especially for sustainable production of medicinal crops. Thus, using natural and on-farm inputs has been considered, to produce healthy food especially in developed countries. Achieve this goal needs organic fertilizers. Given the importance of Purslane as a medicinal plant and the fact that there is no detailed information about the nitrogen requirement for this plant, this study was conducted to evaluate the effect of organic, biological and chemical fertilizers on yield, yield components and percent oil of common Purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.) in Birjand, Iran.

 This research was carried out during two growing seasons (2014/2015 and 2015/2016) at the research farm of Birjand University. In this experiment, the treatments were a combination of four sources of nitrogen supply, including cow manure, vermicompost, chemical fertilizer (NPK) and control (without any fertilizer), as well as four types of biofertilizers including nitroxin (including Azotobacter and Azospirilum), Mycorrhiza (Glomus intraradices), Biosulfur (including Thiobacillus with sulfur) and control (without any fertilizer) on Purslane in a factorial design based on randomized complete blocks design with three replications. The studied characteristics were performed separately in each harvest. From each plot, ten plants were randomly selected, and plant height and SPAD index were measured. Five plants were randomly selected from each plot, and yield components, including the number of capsules per plant, number of seeds per capsule, 1000-seed weight, biological yield, and harvest index, were calculated. The grain yield was performed when yellowing of 70% of the capsules. The oil percentage was measured by Soxhlet method. Oil yield was calculated by multiplying grain yield by oil percentage. Statistical analysis was performed using Minitab 17 software. LSD test was used at the 5% probability level to compare the means.

The results showed that the effect of organic and chemical fertilizers on all studied traits (except harvest index) was significant. The highest plant height (49.24 cm), number of capsules per plant (351.23 capsules) and 1000- seed weight (0.41 g) was related to NPK treatment. The highest chlorophyll index (34.27), seed number per capsule (45.4) and seed oil percentage (14.6) was related to vermicompost treatment. Also, the highest grain yield (1959.29 kg.ha-1), biomass yield (9782.43 kg.ha-1) and oil yield (277.68 kg.ha-1) were obtained from NPK treatment, while no significant differences were observed between NPK fertilizer and cow manure. The effect of biofertilizer on number of capsules per plant, number of seeds per capsule, 1000-grain weight and oil content was significant, but the effect on the other traits was not significant. The highest number of capsules per plant (355.38 capsules) and 1000 seed weight (0.41 g) was related to mycorrhiza treatment, but the highest number of seeds per capsule (43) and oil percentage (14.6) were related to biosulfur treatment. The interaction of two studied factors (different nitrogen sources and biofertilizers) on plant height, chlorophyll index, capsule number per plant, biomass yield, harvest index and oil percentage were significant. The maximum biomass yield was obtained of the interaction between NPK and Nitroxin (10670.1 kg.ha-1), and the interaction between NPK and biosolfur (10306.7 kg.ha-1). The maximum percentage of oil was obtained of control and biosolfur treatments (15.4%).

 Based on the results of this study, it is recommended to replace cow manure with NPK fertilizer to minimize the application of chemical inputs and maximize production of purslane seed and oil in Birjand.

Many activities during production, processing, trade and consumption of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) in Iran, are based on indigenous knowledge. Most share of saffron production in the country is obtained from small fields with family cooperation and using local environmental friendly inputs and technologies. Accordingly, a cosidarable part of saffron produced in Iran is close to the principles of organic farming, but in terms of rules and standards related to this production system, it is considered only as a quasi-organic product. Organic farming is a comprehensive production system that focuses on the quantitative and qualitative aspects of agricultural product during the production cycle (from farm to fork), as well as issues such as justice, social relations, soil health and the rights of all macro and mico organisms. Based on this definition and considering the principles and methods which are used for saffron production in Iranian agroecosystems, it is possible to create a targeted procrdure for its organic production, by perparation a standard. The preparation of this standard, while increasing farmers' incomes, will lead to maintaining and increasing Iran's share of the global market of this valuable medicinal plant. In this article, for all stages of saffron production cycle, using the results of scientific researches on saffron, as well as international, regional and national standards related to organic production, a set of general principles, suggestions (recommendations), requirements and notes are provided. The recommendations are mainly suitable for increasing the quantitative yield, while higher quality of saffron can be achieved by observing the proposed requirements. The guidelines proposed in this paper, besides improving the quantity and quality of the product, will also ensure the other objectives and rules related to organic farming. In the current proposed program, issues related to agronomy (corm production and selection, land selection and preparation, planting, soil nutrition, irrigation, control of biotic stresses, etc.), breeding, harvesting and post-harvest (flowers carrying and storage; separation, drying, grading, packing, labeling and storage of stigma) as well as processing and legal issues have been considered.

Roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) as a member of Malvaceae family is a subtropical medicinal plant. This plant is self-pollinated and sensitive to cold. Bolls of Roselle are used in food and pharmaceutical industries. One of the most important purpose to achieve high quality and quantity yield is evaluation of nutritional systems and irrigation management for plants. The use of chemicals in the production of medicinal plants in addition to environmental pollution, decreases the quality of drug. Furthermore, sustainable agriculture, by replacing organic fertilizers with chemical fertilizers, increasing the efficiency of inputs such as water, and fertility and soil health, preserving the environment and increasing product quality and protect resources. Drought stress is one of the most important problems in crop production in arid and semi-arid regions of the world. Effective management of nutrition and irrigation and planting of drought resistant plants is one of the effective proceeding to increase water use efficiency in semi-arid regions. Roselle is relatively drought-tolerant plants, so that cultivation of this plant is common in Sistan and Baluchestan province of Iran. So, studying the ecological and agronomic needs of this plant in new areas is important. This experiment was conducted to evaluate the yield and yield components of this plant in response to application of nutritional resources and irrigation management.

In order to study the yield and water use efficiency for Roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa), an experiment was conducted with 12 treatments as strip plot based on complete block design with three replications at Research Station, Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran, in year 2014-2015. Experimental factors included: nutritional management in four levels (chemical fertilizer, cow manure, cow manure+ chemical fertilizer and control) and irrigation management in three level (30, 70 and 100% of water requirement of Roselle). Roselle seeds were planted in seedling trays at greenhouse in February 2014. Then seedlings transferred to field in last April 2015. The distance between rows and plants were 75 and 25 cm, respectively. Chemical fertilizer (150, 100 and 200 kg.ha-1 Triple super phosphate, Potassium sulfate and Urea, respectively), and cow manure (32 ton.ha-1) were used at depth of 30 cm. Then, different water requirement of Roselle is determined and the water volume of irrigation will be recorded in each irrigation cycle by the contour, furthermore, water use efficiency was calculated. Statistical analysis of the data was performed by using of Minitab Ver.16. Also, means comparison were compared by Duncan multiple range test at 5% level.

Results indicated significant effects of treatments on most of the traits of Roselle. The maximum plant height (89.3 cm), number of lateral branch (6. 6 number), dry sepal yield (860.1 kg.ha-1), biomass yield (7197 kg.ha-1), harvest index (11.9%) and water use efficiency based on bolls and biomass yield (0.11 and 0.89 kg.m3) of Roselle obtained in cow manure + chemical fertilizer treatment. Also, providing of 100% of the plant's water requirement induced the highest height (91.5 cm), number of bolls on main and lateral branch (20.0 and 47.5 number), sepal yield (672.7 kg.ha-1) and biomass yield (6944 kg.ha-1) of Roselle. Combined application compared to single application of nutritional sources increased 16, 18, 35, 20 and 20%, respectively, height, number of lateral branches, bolls yield, biomass yield and harvest index of Roselle. Furthermore, results of interaction effects showed that application of cow manure + chemical fertilizer with providing of 100% of the plant's water requirement obtained the maximum number of lateral branch (8.5 number), bolls yield (934 kg.ha-1) and biomass yield (7920 kg.ha-1) of Roselle. The highest amount of water use efficiency based on sepal and biomass yield (0.2 and 1.5 kg.m3) obtained by application of cow manure + chemical fertilizer and providing of 30% of the plant's water requirement.

Totally, results showed that combined application and providing of 100% of the plant's water requirement improved the most traits of Roselle. Also, combined application of nutritional sources decreased water consumption and increased water use efficiency.

Nowadays the demand for medicinal plants is increasing in the pharmaceutical industries. Echinacea spp. is an herbaceous, perennial plant containing valuable substances which belong to different chemical groups, most notably phenolic compounds. Echinacea is the most well-known and most important treatment for the immune system and protects against cough, cold and fever. Drought stress can be a major factor in increasing the content of secondary metabolites in many medicinal plants. Organic fertilizers are known to be one of the fertility factors for soil and plant nutrition due to the impacts on the physical, chemical and biological properties of soil. The purpose of this study was to investigate the response of yield and phenolic compounds as the most important group of active compounds in Echinacea in response to different levels of water stress, chemical and organic fertilizer management and their interactions.

This experiment was carried out during 2016 and 2017 years at the experimental Field of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, located at 10 km East of Mashhad. The split plot based on factorial design was implemented in 3 Replications. The  studied factors in this experiment in the main plot were water stress at three levels, including1- Non-Water stress (6000 m3.ha-1), 2- Moderate Water Stress (4500 m3.ha-1), 3- Severe Water stress (3000 m3.ha-1).In sub plots, fertilization treatments applied in eight levels, including, 1- NPK fertilizer (500 kg.ha-1) ; 2-Humic acid (20 L.ha-1); 3-Vermicompost (6000 kg.ha-1); 4-Humic acid+NPK (20 L.ha-1+500 kg.ha-1); 5. Vermicompost+NPK (3000 kg.ha-1+250 kg.ha-1); 6-vermicompost+humic acid (3000 kg.ha-1+20 L.ha-1); 7. Vermicompost+Humic acid+NPK (3000 kg.ha-1+20 L.ha-1+250 kg.ha-1) and 8.control. The amount of irrigation needed at each turn was calculated by NETWAT software. In combined treatments, half of the NPK fertilizer which used in the pure treatment was replaced with the equivalent amount of vermicompost. Constant amount of liquid humic acid was applied at the same time with vermicompost and NPK in rosette leave developing and before stem-elongation phase. The total amount of phenolic compounds in the sample was evaluated by the Folin-Ciocalteu method. Data were analyzed with MSTAT-C statistic software and means compared by Duncan Multiple Range Test.

The most amounts of stem dry matter, flower dry matter and biomass were observed at vermicompost and non-stress treatment and the least amount of them was obtained from control and severe water stress condition. The highest amounts of leaf and root dry weight were obtained under vermicompost+humic acid and moderate water stress treatments and the least amount of leaf dry weight was observed at control and severe water stress treatments. At the same time with the increase of water stress, the impact of organic fertilizers on leaf dry weight decreased, however the application of organic fertilizers increased the leaf dry weight even under severe stress conditions. Maximum seed yield was observed under vermicompost+humic acid+NPK and NPK treatments with severe water stress condition. With increase in the stress level, root to shoot ratio was increased and the maximum amount of that was obtained in control treatment under severe water stress condition and the minimum amount of that was obtained at vermicompost and non-stress treatment. The application of vermicompost and humic acid increased root to shoot ratio in severe stress conditions and it were effective in developing root systems in these conditions. Maximum amounts of phenolic compounds were observed under humic acid+vermicompost treatment with severe stress condition and minimum of these compounds were obtained under humic acid treatment at no-stress. 

The response of aerial parts of plant was associated with a decrease in irrigation levels, however this trend was reversed in underground sections. Thus, the maximum amount of root dry weight, root to shoot ratio and root phenolic compounds were observed in severe stress treatment. The highest amount of Phenolic compounds of the root, the ultimate goal of this plant, were observed under humic acid+vermicompost combination treatments. Therefore the production of this plant in terms of supplying 50% of the required moisture content (is equivalent to 300 mm of irrigation during the one-year growth period) and the use of fertilizer treatments containing humic acid and vermicompost compounds is recommended.

An experiment was conducted in a strip-plot layout based on a randomized complete block design with three replications in the 2016-2017 growing season at the Bakhrez county, Khorasan Razavi province, Iran in order to study quantitative performance and water use efficiency of a few saffron criteria in response to different irrigation volumes and intervals. Irrigation intervals was allocated as horizontal factor (factor A) in four levels (a1=15, a2 =30, a3 = 45, and a4 = 90 days) and irrigation water volume performed as vertical factor (factor B) in four volumes (b1 = 250, b2 = 500, b3 = 1000 and b4 = 1250 m3.ha-1). The results showed that the highest saffron flower and corm yields were obtained in the a2b3 treatment (total water volume of 6000 m3.ha-1). The highest reduction in corm yield is shown in the a4b1 treatment (total water volume 750 m3.ha-1) with a decrease of 72.1% compared to a1b2 (total water volume 5500 m3.ha-1). The lowest fresh flower yield was obtained in the a4b1 treatment (total water volume 750 m3.ha-1) with a decrease of 76.5% compared to a1b2 (total water volume 5500 m3.ha-1), and the lowest yield of corm yield was shown in treatment with a4b1 volume (total water volume 750 m3.ha-1) with a decrease of 70.6% compared to the a2b3 volume (The total volume of water was 6000 m3.ha-1). Also, the results showed that the highest decrease in corm water use efficiency was obtained in the a1b4 treatment (total water volume 13750 m3.ha-1) decreased by 85.4 percent compared to a3b1 (total volume of water 1000 m3.ha-1) and the greatest decrease in fresh flower water use efficiency was shown in the a1b4 treatment (total volume of water 13750 m3.ha-1) decreased by 82.4% compared to a2b1 (total volume of water 1500 m3.ha-1). According to the results, the use of 250 to 500 m3.ha-1 irrigation in 30-day intervals (1500 to 3000 m3.ha-1) is recommended for maximum water use efficiency in saffron cultivation.