saleh pargari

The main question of the present article is to determine Kerman statesmen’s approach towards finance and tax collection and the basis for tax resources of Kerman Qara-Khitai. The findings of the research indicate that the tax resources in the Qara-Khitai period included receiving diverse types of taxes from different areas of the Kerman as well as receiving taxes from the surrounding area, which were done in two direct and indirect ways. In the direct method, they collected various taxes by sending tax collectors and deposited the collected taxes to the treasury of the Grand Divan. In the indirect method, the government collected taxes, without direct contact with the people, and sent tax collectors to collect taxes, using Muvada'a (contracting), Mukata (Grant), and Barat (bill of exchange).

What occurred in west as modernization, did revolutionized societies around the world intellectually and culturally. Iranian encountered modernization and western culture around the second half of Qajar dynasty and it led to the constitutional movement and the establishment of the national assembly. Up until Rezakhan reign (1925-1941) the relations with west had its own vicissitudes. Along with modernization, the first Pahlavi was influenced by those intellectuals and modernists advocating for the "imitation theory" in which their thoughts and ideas were secular, nationalistic and modernist and accented King, Mother Country and Children. As a result, a new cultural nourishment begun to emerge. Iranian national assembly as the most essential democratic establishment could have legitimated the king's actions. This research is based on detailed discussions in the parliaments, documents and library studies using a descriptive- analytic method to analyze the activities of the regime through parliament affirmations regarding culture making. The result of this was the confirmation of King's power and for the parliament, to be compliant in enacting cultural establishments such as University of Tehran, Persian Literature Academy, Museums, the institute for anthropology and Radio.

Relatively speaking, the policy and approach of the Naqshbandi Tariqat is derived from the Tariqat of Abdul Khaliq Ghajdwani (died 575AH). But the origin of this sect is attributed to Bahauddin Muhammad Naqshband Bukhari (717-719 A.H.), which was established and expanded in the Khorasan region and beyond. During the Timurid period, his successors were given the position of peshvai. However, the peak of prosperity and spread of the Naqshbandi Tariqat happened in the second half of the 9th century AH under the leadership of Khwaja Ubaidullah Ahrar (died895AH) who had a close relationship with Sultan Abu Said. Naqshbandiyeh was influenced by the cultural and political conditions of the Timurid period in Mawra al-Nahr(Transoxiana)and Khorasan. Investigation and research showed that 1: The Naqshbandi sect had an impact on the religious and religious orientation of the ruling body in Mawra al-Nahr(Transoxiana) and Khorasan, which was the center of power of the Timurids, and the prosperity of the Naqshbandi sect in Mawra al-Nahr(Transoxiana) and Khorasan was the result of a direct relationship with the system of social values and its religious principles. Tariqah was with the cultural and political structure of Timurid period society.2: the weakening of the Naqshbandi Tariqat in Mawra al-Nahr (Transoxiana)and Khorasan after the fall of the Timurids was due to the change in political and cultural conditions in the region of Naqshbandi and Khorasan, and this caused the influence of the sheikhs of the Naqshbandi Tariqa and its ability to influence the society to be greatly reduced. The method of this research, like historical research, is based on the description and analysis of library resource data, which uses Foucault's theory of genealogy in historical analysis.

The Timurid era was one of the most efficient cultural periods in Iran in terms of literature and art. Because the policies of Timur and his successors provided a good ground for cultural activities.The flow of poetry in the Timurid era expanded and flourished as it was welcomed and materially and spiritually supported by the Timurid sultans. Due to the status and high impact of poetry in the Timurid era, Timurid kings and princes used poetry effectively to convince and achieve their goals in political relations. The use of poetry in the political letters of the Timurid period was common and was considered a privilege and a virtue. Poets and writers in the Timurid era had a high political and social status. Thus, Timurid kings and princes were equally important to poetry. Thus, for the Timurid sultans, poetry was an influential tool in the politics of domestic and foreign relations. Although the Timurid rulers were fond of poetry and poets, and many of them wrote poetry themselves; But the cost of Timurid kings and princes for the development of poetry was politically motivated and met their political expectations.

The formation of the Pahlavi government in Iran and their geopolitical expansionist policy in the Middle East had led to their extensive relations with the governments of the region. Accordingly, the Iranian government, in order to establish relations with the Middle East states, turned to the expansion of the Foreign Ministry and the expansion of foreign relations.

In this regard, the present study has been collected by descriptive-analytical method and relying on documents, manuscripts and library resources.

The findings of the study indicate that the Ministry of Foreign Affairs was fully aware of the importance of Iran's geopolitical position in the region and international order during the period. During this period, separate circles were formed in the affairs of the Middle East.

the analysis of the performance of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Iran's political relations with the Middle East government between the years (1356-1320 AD), which shows the geopolitical situation and position of Iran at that time in the region and the international environment, can be helpful for historians and geopoliticians.

The Timurid period is a golden age in the popularity and evolution of Iranian calligraphy. During this period, with the invention and spread of Nastaliq, calligraphers emerged. Calligraphers as one of the most important groups have interacted with other social classes in their time. The main issue of this article is to examine the quality and manner of relations between scholars and calligraphers in the Timurid period. The researcher's hypothesis in this research was that in this period, due to the Timurid support for the art of calligraphy, art was also considered by the educated in the society and since calligraphers wrote religious texts, it seemed that the relationship between calligraphers and scholars This course is interactive. The method of conducting descriptive-analytical research and data collection was done by referring to library resources and documents. After reviewing and analyzing the data, the hypothesis was proved. The results of this study showed that in the Timurid era, Shiite scholars and calligraphers interacted with each other cultural and social activities in such a way that the importance and virtue of calligraphy among scholars and calligraphers' attention to mystical religious sciences on the other hand, established a strong bond between them. The art of calligraphy has two notable features: first, it made a living through this art and they worked in government courts and courts of law and copying and writing. In fact, they were responsible for the transfer of science and knowledge. On the other hand, if some calligraphers turned to this art with a heartfelt interest and were less interested in material interests, they would have paid more attention to the criteria of art and beauty. This group of calligraphers usually had students who tried to promote this art by educating and training younger calligraphers. They were mostly considered by scholars, princes and elders, and in fact the calligraphy and its evolution and validity were done by these people. The Timurid period is an era in which, despite the turmoil, the existing socio-cultural and political problems of its early formation are known as the Renaissance and flourishing. In a nutshell, political stability is the economic boom of religious freedom and respect for religion and their leaders. The Timurid era is an influential factor in the flourishing of the art of this period. Different cultural groups have always had close relations in the Timurid era, but in this period, the level of communication between scholars and calligraphers is more visible than before. During this period, due to the emergence and spread of Sufi and Shiite sects of the religion and due to the deep connection between the art of calligraphy and the religion of Islam, calligraphers of the Timurid period had Shiite and Sufi tendencies. During this period, scholars were considered serious calligraphers, and sometimes even some of them, in addition to mastering religious or intellectual sciences, learned the art of calligraphy in order to have a better social status in society.

One of the noteworthy issues of Western tourists who have been in Iran, is how Georgians become Muslim, especially during and after the Safavid era. Most of these tourists have described Georgians as unstable and weak in their religion and consider their converting to Islam to be expedient and for benefits. From the viewpoint of Western tourists, Georgians at that time longed for a return to Christianity. However, the results of this study show that Georgians living in Iran during the reign of Shah Abbas I, especially Georgians migrating to different regions such as Isfahan and Mazandaran, contrary to this claim, were mainly from the weak class of Georgia and were not happy with the Christianity as the religion of the upper class and the rulers of Georgia. They have chosen Islam at the right time and, contrary to the claims of some Western tourists, have been steadfast in their new religion and specifically the Shiite religion, and in the long run have been a source of valuable services. Although in some cases there has been a return to Islam (due to the class differences in Georgia), it has been mainly related to some of the elders and relatives of the Georgian rulers who were forced to stay in Iran for some reason and rarely changed their religion according to their interests.

  Investigates the reasons of differences between President Banisadr and the Parliament following 1979 Islamic Rrevolution with regard to the nomination of the Prime Minister and Cabinet Members. Method and Research Design: Archival records and library material was consulted to gater data. Findings and  Differences were political and ideological, as well as legal. The political crisis has subsided to some extent since the ouster of the President. Widening ideological and political differences between BaniSadr, the President and the, Rajaei, the Prime Minister led to the passage of anumber of bills in the Parliament that curtailed the authority of the former. One such bills allowed the PM  to implement bills passed the parliament if the President refused to sign them and the other that allowed the PM to appoint caretakers for government departments. Finally, when the Parliament impeached BaniSadr and voted on his political incompetence he was sacked.

Understanding the political-administrative structure that came out of the steppes of Mongolia in the thirteenth century and ruled over half the civilized world of its time has always occupied the minds of historians. From the beginning, the Mongols put their plans on the establishment of the government and its continuation, and for this purpose they created their own administrative system, albeit adapted from the government experiences of other more civilized nations. One of the practical systems used by the Mongols to maintain and expand their control over the conquered lands was the Tamma, which can be found in the early Mongol period, in Iran, Russia, and in the Golden Herd. This paper attempts to study the nature and function of the Tamma in Iran with a descriptive-analytical approach, relying on Persian sources and a critical view of previous researches. The findings of the study suggests that, despite the conformity of this structure with Iranian bureaucratic traditions that greatly facilitated the work of the Iranian and the Mongol bureaucrats, the different background of bureaucracy and the particular situation of Iran led to major difference in the functioning, overall life and fate of the Tamma in Iran, compared to other parts of

The local government of Al-Kia ruled Gilan and areas to the east of Sepidrud known as “Biah Pish,” from the eighth to the tenth centuries of the Hijra.       Having adopted clever policies with regard to the requirements and political relations of their time, this ruling family managed to stay safe from the attacks of Iran’s central governments. They even managed to maintain their domestic autonomy.      Using an analytical descriptive method, this study seeks to investigate factors leading to Al-Kia’s convergence with the central governments as well as issues that led to an increase in their divergence from the central governments and desire for more autonomy.
     The findings of this study indicate that factors such as Al-Kia’s desire for holding power within this local family and staying safe from the central rulers’ attacks bolstered convergence between the two sides. On the other hand, factors such as Al-Kia’s desire for controlling more territory, geographical and climate factors, their adherence to a religious denomination different from that of the central government, the region’s economic independence, abundance of water resources, and peasant’s ongoing struggles throughout the history of Gilan were among the driving forces of divergence.

One of the most important resources of Iranian identity is the Persian literature. In this study, the Iranian identity was examined in poems of six prominent poets of the Great Seljuk court including Adib Saber Tarmezi, AzraqiHeravi, Anvari, Amir-Ma'azi, Abdul WassaJabali and LamiehGorganiby emphasizing on three categories: 1) application of the terms Iran and Ajam; 2) mythological characters of ancient Iran; 3) Iranian celebrations by Content Analysis method. As the results showed, the term "Iran" was used sixty-seven times and "Ajam" was used ninety times in poems. Thirty-seven mythological characters of ancient Iran were mentioned in these poems. Ten important characters were mentioned 515 times in poems, which indicates the extensive use of Iranian mythology in poems of Seljuk poets. The result also showed that Nowrouz and Mehregan were widely held in the Seljuk court and Seljuk kings encouraged occasional ballades. It was also found that IranianVazirs (ministers) and Diavanids (bureaucrats) supported these poems and greatly contributed to supporting Iranian identity in Seljuks court.

Due to the knowledge of geography and the spread of this science to Muslims, in the 4th and 5th centuries AH there were formed two geographic schools called Iraqi and Balkhi, and each of these two schools used the principles in the creation of their works. Ibn Rustah is among the geographers who belong by researchers at the Iraqi school. Ibn Rustah's significance is that he has a world-wide view of geography, and for this purpose he has tried to transform his work into a comprehensive encyclopedia. Hence, despite the similarities exist between the way in which the al-Nafīsseh book and the works of other geographers of the Iraqi school, there are many differences in comparison with these works. Based on the results, these differences are evident in human geography, economic geography, religious and sectarian geography, mathematical and astronomy geography, the pre-eminence of the description of Mecca and Medina on Baghdad, the description of areas, roads, rivers and seas.

Emirate and Ministry (vizarat) were among the significant authoritative institutions in Ilkhanid administration. The Chief Commander ( Amir ul- Umara’) as the second Ilkhanid statesman and the head of Emirate institution and the Chief Minister as the head of bureaucracy institution which was consisted of mostly Iranian ( Tajiks) were in charge. The mutual interaction or conflict between the two institutions could make some good changes in society, as well as on themselves, by the means of convergence. That was to maintain security and welfare as well as fair taxation and making religio- state ties. In Arqun time the mutual affairs between Emirate and Ministry was in turbulence. Amir Buqa, the chief commander who had already contributed to Arqun’s power, took the office of Ministry which was considered an odd custom at that time. Where the great Mongol Ilkhan handed the power to Amir Buqa, it eventually weakened the administration authority and led to the conflict with Amir Buqa. Massacre of Amir Buqa’s household made a ground for the presence of the bureaucrats within the Ministry institution. The Jewish Sa’duddoleh engaging the judiciary post in Ministry tried to retrieve the lost values while the support of the government gradually made a great divergence on Emirate and Ministry institutions. The only solution was to murder vizir and his household at the time of Arqun’s illness and Ilkhanid’s weakness.

The present Study endeavors to investigate the routes of Shiraz to Isfahan from the early Islamic periods to the advent of Safavid Empire. The main questions of this study are: what were the direction of these routes? And what made such routes functional and essential?
The outcome of this research confirms that cites (Isfahan and Shiraz) were connected by 3 routes during early Islamic centuries from historical geography's approach. Such routes consists of western direction called Simirum, eastern direction named Estakhar and central direction called Main Run. Despite of expansion of eastern routes in middle period, such routes were extensively utilized by the advent of Safavid government. The reasons for expansion of such routes can be considered generally and specifically. In general, the factors including political centralization, security, economic policy, change of capital, etc. and specifically, reforms of local governments, the attempts of tribal and religious groups for obtaining the political concession can be regarded.

One of Omar’s innovations during his rule was selecting six members from the clan of Quraish amongst the migrants and placed them in the council of guided caliphs, announcing them to be viable candidates to succeed the prophet Mohammad. The questionable point is that these members of the guided caliph council, with the exception of Imam Ali, at the time of Othman’s rule and afterwards Imam Ali’s rule, were never subservient to the caliph of the time and created many obstacles for the successors of the Prophet. In the present study, using an analytic method, we have strived to identify the root reasons for discontentment from the council of six towards Othman the thirdcaliph and Imam Ali. In truth, the second caliph’s innovation caused the public to take a special liking to the council (due to victories in war, conquered trophies, and spreading the nation by conquering the Sassanid and Byzantine empires in the time of Omar), and the members of the council, with the exception of Imam Ali, became arrogant and lost the respect the bore for the first and second caliph, at the time of the third and fourth caliph. The members of the council, unlike the time of the Sheiks, had no subordination towards the later caliphs and believed themselves to be equals to them. One of the major problems of the third and fourth caliphs, was the arrogance and greed of Abdul Rahman Bin Ouf, Sa’d Bin Abu Waqqas, Talha and Zubair, who were no longer content with just receiving hefty salaries, and demanded high ranking positions from Othman, and later welfare in addition to salaries and positions from Imam Ali, and having been refused by the Imam, created obstacles for his rule.

With beginning of invitation in Iraq, the central leaders of invitation fewness after 260(Hegira) sent messengers to Jebal, Khorasan, Azerbaijan and …. Esma’eli invitation starts with messengers such as Abu Hatam Razi, Abu Yaqoob Sajestani and Moa’yed Alddin Shirazi; and brought remarkable progress in various especially in Iran, and even Esma’eliyeh movement didn’t stop with all solid disagreements of Abbasi’s Caliphate and Soni government of Samaniyan, Qaznaviyan and Saljooqiyan. Esma’eliyeh movement divided in two parts with Mostanser’s death and disagreements and conflicts of Fatemi Esma’eliyeh of Egypt through deputy. Special attempt of Esma’eliyeh for publishing and improving the movement in successive years, making religious attraction and fascination for attracting masses and using from their political and social backgrounds, and managing this movement correctly was the beginning of the new invitation in Iran. The movement’s leadership of Esma’eliyeh in Iran was taken by Hasan Sabah who they named as Esma’eliyeh of Nazriyeh.

The present paper tries to indentify the factors influencing the development of Sufism and explains its outcomes in Seljukid period. In this period, Sufis enjoyed the support of the ruling class, and jurists tried to incorporate religious law into the esoteric path of Sufism. Furthermore, the doctrinal confusion caused the society to face crisis which prepared the grounds for the development of a sort of Sufism compatible with people's morale. The development of Sufism has positive and negative effects, both of which have been investigated.