جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه « بغداد » در نشریات گروه « تاریخ »

From the second century AH onwards, the Islamic world witnessed the presence of non-Muslim physicians from various regions, including India, in Baghdad, the center of the Islamic Caliphate. These physicians came to the Abbasid capital at the invitation of the Abbasid caliphs or influential figures of the government. The question arises as to how the caliphs and governmental agents during the early Abbasid era (132-232 AH) interacted with Indian physicians and what impact this interaction had on Islamic civilization's medicine. Analyzing the topic using a descriptive-analytical method and historical texts, particularly medical history, reveals that Indian physicians such as Manka, Bahla, and his son Saleh, Ibn Dahan, and several others were invited by the Abbasid caliphs or their agents, including the Barmakids, to the Islamic realm and were treated with respect and leniency. The Abbasid caliphs provided them with ample resources and willingly accepted the significant costs of their presence. This facilitated their contribution to and influence on Islamic civilization's medicine. In addition to treating caliphs and their associates, the non-Muslim Indian physicians played a role in transferring some Indian medical works to the Islamic world, such as the "Sisrud" (Al-Mujmal wa Al-Mufassal), "Quwwa al-Adwiyah," "Tafsir Asma al-Aqaqir," "Istanqar Jami'," "Mukhtasar fi al-Aqaqir lil-Hind," and "Kitab Tawqishtal." They also introduced certain treatment methods, like the extensive use of medicinal plants, to the Islamic world.

The death of Sultan Mohammad Seljuqi in 511 A. H was the beginning of the weakening of the Seljuqs and the efforts of the Abbasid caliphs to strengthen the worldly power. These conflicts led to many disagreements and conroversies between the Seljuqs of Iraq and the Abbasid caliphs. The internal disagreements among the Seljuk princes caused the caliphs to seize the opportunity to consolidate their power and encourage the decentralization of the military commanders. For example, Caliph Al-Rashed Belleh, relying on the legacy that came to him from his father (Mostarshad), made great efforts to get out of the control of the Seljuqs of Iraq. The present research, written through the descriptive-analytical method relying on primary sources, seeks to investigate the relations between the Abbasid caliphs and the Seljuqs of Iraq and the policy of the caliphs to gain power. The findings of the research declare that the Abbasid caliphs managed to stregthen their authority in Iran by creating division among the Seljuk princes, alliance with Atabakan and weaker princes,   considering the prevailing conditions in Iran at the end of the 6th century A. H which led to the emergence of Khwarazmianan, and benefiting from the extra-regional forces, they ended the political life of the Seljuks of Iraq.

The tendency of political systems to meet the needs of the government has consistently attracted the attention of government officials to the scientists of society throughout history. Because scholars have the capabilities that governments need in their power structure. In this regard, the study of the relationship between Islamic rulers and elites is considered as an important topic in historical research. Thus, studying this issue without being aware of government requirements will be an ineffective and sometimes fruitless effort.The rulers of Baghdad in the fourth century AH realized that creating an alliance between political power and ulema would be the only way to establish their caliphate. Therefore, while welcoming theologians and narrators, they sought to escape political convulsions by employing their capabilities. Accordingly, the main purpose of this descriptive-analytical study is to answer the question of which of Baghdad's political necessities made the caliphate popular with thinkers.A review of library resources shows; The need to control rival caliphs in Andalusia, the need to curb Egyptian Fatimid power, to pretend to be in line with dominant religious beliefs, the desire to revive Etzal, and finally to take advantage of the Shiite capacity in the face of the crisis of absenteeism all attracted the attention of scholars.

The role and position of the Kurdish Baban Emirate in Iran-Ottoman relations has been neglected. The main problem of the present research is to investigate the impact of the Ottoman central government's inability in the eastern provinces on the security of the western territory of Iran. Emirate of Baban and Pashalik of Baghdad were provinces far from the Ottoman center. The territories of both rulers were separated from the territory of Iran after the Zohab Treaty, but Iran's influence and role in Baban and Baghdad never disappeared. The inability and unwilling of the Ottoman central government - especially from the twelfth century to the middle of the thirteenth century - had led to a power vacuum in the eastern provinces. Such a situation was a serious threat to the western territory of Iran. As the subjects and borderlands of Iran were exposed many times to the raids of the Kurds and Arabs of the territory of Baban and Baghdad. In order to ensure the security of its territory, as well as maintaining and continuing its role and influence in the territory of Baban, Iran was inevitably involved in the conflicts between Baban and Baghdad. Some researchers have wrongly considered Iran's involvement in Baban and Baghdad issues as "interference". While Iran's involvement was as a legitimate right to Self-Defense. In the present research, the claim of Iran's "interference" has been rejected by a descriptive-analytical method and a critical approach, citing Iranian and Ottoman documents and sources. Because the involvement of Iran in the affairs of Baban and Baghdad was more than based on the will of the Iran, it was caused by the inability and unwillingness of the Ottoman government in the eastern provinces. Basically, the Ottoman government was considered among the unable or unwilling states from the point of view of international law. In order to ensure the security of its subjects and borderlands, Iran sometimes had to use force, except for political and diplomatic ways

The role of the governors of Baghdad is one of the important issues in the relations between Iran and the Ottoman Empire during the Qajar period. The administration of Iraq was difficult due to the distance from the center, the presence of different ethnic groups and Shiite pilgrimage sites, and the proximity to Iran, and the appointed governors tried to strengthen their political and financial power by fueling the differences between Iran and the Ottoman Empire. From the middle of the 19th century and the reforms carried out in the Ottoman territory, an attempt was made to coordinate their administration with Istanbul by appointing governors such as Najib Pasha. However, Pasha's contractionary policy in Baghdad caused a political crisis. Against this backdrop, the research question of the present study concerns the policy adopted by Najib Pasha during the governorship of Baghdad to divide Iran and the Ottoman Empire. Based on the descriptive-analytical approach and the view of centralism, the governors of Baghdad and consequently Najib Pasha saw the security threat from Iran and the Iranians living in Iraq very forceful for their position. Therefore, in their political orientation, they tried to use this intellectual atmosphere of the Istanbul court in line with their interests. Also, relying on the idea of centralism and the unbreakable link of the empire and removing its destructive elements, they tried to consider the suppression and massacre of the people of Karbala as legitimate and necessary.

The question of people's physical and spiritual diversity has an ancient history and can be traced back to the ancient world. This question has also been discussed in the medical and geographical-historical books of the Islamic world, and the natural-geographical factors of the diversity of houses/soils, water/waters, and airs, and the distance and proximity of the sun and the angle of its radiation have been considered to be influential in the moral and character traits of people and the cause of diversity. They are counted among the people, and the air is the most special, which is mentioned in medical books in the discussion of the "necessary element" of maintaining health. After short research of these factors in some of the ancient and medieval written heritage of the Islamic world, this article examines the character and personality characteristics of the people of Baghdad, the scientific, cultural, and political capital of the Islamic world for long centuries (from the emergence to the fall) in relation to their land in some Its historical-geographical works cover centuries. Obviously, the thinkers and scientists of the Islamic world have explained the diversity of the people with the aforementioned natural-geographical factors, without being subject to geographical determinism.

Scribe women in the Abbasid era were active in various political, social, and cultural fields. Analyzing Iraq scribe women, specifically Baghdad, in the fourth era of the Abbasid caliphate (448-656 AH), the present study seeks to answer the question of what was their roles in cultural changes and the development of Islamic sciences and culture. This study has used a historical research method based on the descriptive-analytical method. Findings indicate that scribe and calligrapher women had a special position in this period. They played a greater role in the development of Islamic sciences and culture, especially religious and narrative science such as ḥadīth, preaching, sermon, and jurisprudence (Fiqh) and many scholars and celebrities attended their classes. Scribe women let students narrate ḥadīth so that some of them became part of the Baghdad military instructors later. Some women were experts in calligraphy and trained famous students in this field. Because of their beautiful handwriting, they wrote Amali of various scholars for others and earned a living in this way. Also, scribe and calligrapher women influenced the court of the Abbasid Caliphate and wrote letters and Tawqi‘ of them. They taught calligraphy to the courts. Some of the scribe women wrote Diwan of great poets or wrote poetry themselves and in this way helped the development of Arabic poetry and literature. The importance and sanctity of the Holy Qur'an encouraged scribe women to transcribe, illuminate and interpret the Qur'an on a large scale. Some Shīʿa scribe women also played an effective role in the publication and promotion of Shiite sciences during this period.

After Buyids coming to power in the fourth century, the Abbasid caliphate which had been weakened in all of its kingpins, was put under the control of Buyid Amirs. As a result, The Buyids which had Shia identity prevailed over the most important parts of Islamic lands, but since the changing of political and religious structure was not possible due to not having prepared necessary backgrounds, they launched on cultural activates to make ready their society to accept Shia believes and their own final sovereignty. In this way, they revealed and even made official many of Shia rites which were hidden until then. The paper is going to study the function and activities of the Buyid sovereigns in expanding Shiizm. It seems that as a result of the Buyids activities, Shiizm got into the way of prosperity and announced itself as a state religion and the Shiis situation became also better and they enjoyed relative freedom as a result of Buyids patronage.

Social History as a New Trend In studying the history of past societies, it tries to pay attention to the daily life of ordinary people. In these studies, the component of "occupations" as the main pillar of social and economic life is of special importance. The city of Baghdad was one of the most famous Islamic capitals with its political and economic composition and structure. The political, scientific and cultural attractions of Baghdad during the Abbasid caliphate led to the large presence of the population in this city, and consequently the growth of urbanization and the expansion of economic and political affairs led to the transformation of jobs in this period. This article, while examining the occupations of this period as an important part of social history in the second to seventh centuries AH, tries to show the causes of change in occupations of the Abbasid era. This study tries to answer the question by using descriptive and analytical methods. What is the evolution of jobs in Baghdad during the Abbasid era from the 2nd to the 7th century AH?It seems that among the factors of change in Baghdad jobs during five centuries can be the expansion of the administrative system and the emergence of various government jobs, the growth of urbanization and welfare, the establishment of scientific and educational centers, security and economic development and agricultural development.

Baghdad flourished during the Abbasid period as the center of the Islamic caliphate in political and economic aspects. In the eighth century AD., this city was the center of trade in Islamic civilization due to its geographical privileges. This research seeks the reasons and grounds for this economic flourishment in the first period of the Abbasid caliphate. The findings indicate that Baghdad's geographical and political situation was the reason for this growth. Baghdad was at the intersection of business roads and seaways between the east and west of the Islamic civilization; the city also had security and facilities. This commercial function of Baghdad plays a crucial role in the Islamic civilization's development in agriculture, industry, education, and science.

The establishment of the Buwayhid dynasty in Baghdad in the fourth and fifth AH centuries paved the way for a process of military and religious conflicts due to the effect of the influence of military rivalries (Turks and Deylam) on religious conflicts (Shiites and Sunnis), consequently, the Ayarans became the operational arms of the military. This article is an attempt to describe the position of this group in the military and "religious" conflicts by examining the influence of political underlying factors on Ayaran's activities. Shi'ism has paved the way for three different periods of Ayyar activity. Accordingly, in the period 334-367 AH. The Ayarans were involved in the course of military and religious conflicts, but after a period of inactivity during the years 377 379 AH, the group regained power in 379-447. During this period this group gained relative independence from the above-mentioned conflicts, but instead organized looting independent of military and religious conflicts, confronted with military forces, and create a map in the Al-Buwayh government structure.

Craftsmen in post-Islamic Iran history have had a close relationship with religion and its custodians. Among the factors close connection of guilds to religion and its custodians, proximity to the physical space of the mosque and market place, providing effective support to groups and the influential religious scholars in society. Proximity of craftsmen to religious circles in cities consistently emphasized the role of religion in the economic and cultural relations of the pioneers. In such a way that caused the queuing based on the factor of religion among the artisans living in various neighborhoods of cities and led neighborhood conflicts based on religious differences. This has had some dire consequences, especially in the field of economics, for craftsmen. This study is going to answer the question of what was the role of religious conflict in the economic weakness of Baghdad's craftsmen in the fourth and fifth centuries. The results of this study show that sectarian disputes in Baghdad due to the market fires, killing of skilled artisans, looting shops and craftsmen's property caused economic weakness of craftsmen. This research aims to analyse historical data through a descriptive-analytical method to indicate the role of religious conflicts in the economic weakness of Baghdad's craftsmen through the Fourth and Fifth centuries.

studying the factors affecting the development of jobs during the caliphate of Harun Rashid Abbasi has a great importance. Harun, the most powerful Abbasid king, in addition to foreign conquests and the development of Islamic lands, paid serious attention to the Islamic State, especially Baghdad as its capital. The political -economic security of Baghdad made the Abbasid caliph to continue his conquests seriously. One of the important issues in social history today is the change of jobs and the factors affecting it in this period. This study tries to answer the question using descriptive and analytical methods that what are the factors affecting the development of jobs during the caliphate of Harun Abbasi? The results show that several factors have played the role including: economic and regulatory policies of the Abbasid government, the formation of trade movement, agricultural factors, new conquests, urbanization, elite attraction and influence of other civilizations, and political and military factors.

The fourth and fifth centuries AH is the period of the domination of the Buwayhīd dynasty over the caliphate of Baghdad. This dynasty of Shiites was very interested in spreading knowledge in the countries under their control and devoted all their efforts to supporting scientists and promoting science. The most important examples of their support for science can be seen in Baghdad, as the center of the Islamic Caliphate. The kings and ministers of this government were very interested in promoting knowledge in all the known fields and areas of that time and were able to accelerate the scientific endeavors made in the time of Hārūn and Maʾmūn with more power. With the spirit of religious and scientific tolerance, to turn the “Dār al-ʿIlm”s as a historical continuation of the House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Ḥikma), into a safe place for research, study and teaching of scientists. In the meantime, some centers such as “Dār al-ʿIlm Shāpūr” became a suitable place for gathering the most important scientists of that time due to the efforts of the honorable founder and the trustees of its scientists. In addition to scientific discussions and debates, valuable works by scientists were made available to science seekers in the center’s extensive library. One of the sciences that was able to develop with the help of the administrative and scientific structure of “Dār al-ʿIlm Shāpūr” is medical knowledge. The large number of books preserved in that center, and especially the dedication of the important medical works of the great physicians of that time, had given it double importance. The present study is an attempt to analyze the prominent role of the library of “Dār al-ʿIlm Shāpūr” in the spread of knowledge -especially medicine- in the fourth and fifth centuries AH.

Baghdad, the center of the Abbasid Caliphate in the sixth and seventh centuries AH, with the growth of scientific and cultural centers, the presence of scholars, Scientists and the conflict of views and opinions of religious differences with scientific motion marked a brilliant history in the cultural field. Meanwhile, Sufism, with the presence of Sufi sheikhs, its expansion and function in the monasteries found a regular framework. The purpose of this study is to survey which variables have been influenced by the identified Sufism in Baghdad's monasteries. The findings indicate the supportive role of the caliphate family, government agents and Shafi'i jurists and Sufi sheikhs in the construction of monasteries and the educational role of Shafi'i, Hanafi and Hanbali jurists and narrators in Sufi teachings and the active presence of women in teaching and managing monasteries. The distance of Sufism from the main orbit and its bias towards the general public and the religious scholars was also a result of the current situation. The influence of the Khorasan School and the emigration of sheikhs and Sufism enthusiasts from Iran and Khorasan to Baghdad indicate the interaction of these two Sufi schools on the orbit of Sharia. The present paper, compiled by descriptive-analytical method, will search the situation of Sufism in Baghdad with a focus on monasteries and sheikhs.

Baghdad was the center of the caliphate of the Islamic world for more than five centuries. It was conquered by the Mongols in 656 AH, so this is the most important event in the political developments of that time. The military strategies of the Mongol empire enabled them to conquer almost the entire continent of Asia and parts of Eastern Europe. They adopted useful technologies for attacking fortifications from other cultures, and employed foreign technical experts. Their military structure was very flexible, and allowed the Mongol army to attack in large groups to besiege the enemy or ambush them in order to destroy a fugitive and defeated army. Thus, the present study seeks to find out what effects the Mongol military strategies had on the downfall of Baghdad. The article adopts a historical method in analyzing and explaining the military strategies of the Mongols in the conquest of Baghdad. The findings indicate that the weak structure of the caliphate, their military organizations, and the strategies they implemented played a very important role in the fall of Baghdad after five centuries of centralization of the caliphate. The use of light military equipment and catapults, their adoption of irregular warfare, consultation, and the evaluation of public opinion were the most important factors in the success of the Mongols.

Baghdad or Medina al-Salam is an Islamic metropolis that was able to maintain its position as the political, cultural and economic capital of the Islamic world throughout the era of the Abbasid Caliphate (132-656 AH).The aim of the present study is to examine the economic situation of Baghdad in the seventh century AH.The results of the research indicate that the situation of the Abbasid caliphs in the seventh century AH originated from the situation that when they faced the Buwayhi emirs, their absolute power was reduced and they became subject to the Buwayhi emirs, although at this time, Baghdad was flourishing. Subsequently, the Seljuk sultans, the Khwarezmshahi kings, and the Ismailis made matters worse.As the political situation became critical, the Abbasid caliphs were also economically affected and their agriculture, trade, and industry stagnated.After a great massacre in this city, the patriarchal rule was established and by the order of Holakokhan, Atamalek Jovini and his nephew ruled the city of Baghdad for twenty-four years, which influenced the development of this city and along with them Ghazan Khan, the Mongol ruler. It was not ineffective in reviving the glory of Baghdad.

The geographical location and its impact on the economy is particularly important in understanding the history of a city. The Mongol invasion of Iran brought about major changes in the decadence and growth of the city. Tabriz city, due to its geographical location and its economic importance in the Ilkhanid era, enjoyed a special importance. The purpose of this study was to investigate the reasons for the importance of the geographical location of Tabriz in its growth and prosperity, with an emphasis on its economic resultant during the Ilkhanid period. The method of this research is to explain and interpret events based on the influence of the geographical location on the economic structure of Tabriz in that era. Tabriz has enjoyed relative urban growth and prosperity for a long time, but after the fall of Baghdad in 656 (AH) it was more favored. After becoming the capital, Tabriz turned to one of the most important cities and commercial centers of Iran during the Ilkhanid era. Above all, Baghdad was quickly downgraded from a caliphate center to a small state-run city.