alireza alebouyeh

The concept of "person" as a key concept in philosophy, law and ethics refers to beings who have moral dignity and fundamental rights. Characteristics such as consciousness, intelligence, self-awareness and the ability to communicate are the criteria for identifying a being as a "person". This concept is important in human rights and bioethics, especially in life and death issues such as abortion and infanticide. Clarifying different approaches about the concept of "person" can have profound effects on moral and legal decisions. While the use of this term is common in the West and it is the criterion of many moral and legal judgments, in Iran its moral dimensions have not yet been addressed and this gap necessitates a detailed investigation. This article examines two main approaches to the concept of "person" in bioethics: the gifted approach that emphasizes the inherent value of all human beings and the functional approach that considers only humans with certain characteristics to have moral dignity. The requirement of the functional approach is that all human beings do not have moral dignity and do not have equal rights.

Research Institute of Islamic Sciences and Culture Social inequality between men and women, lack of equal opportunities for them, gender discrimination and oppression of women in different eras in western societies caused the creation of movements for women's rights. The feminism movement is the most influential intellectual and social movement to gain equal rights and achieve social justice. The main claim of feminism is the domination and subjugation of women, and the most important factor behind this subjugation and oppression is marriage and family formation. According to feminists, women can achieve equal personal and social positions if they do not have to endure marriage and its consequences, especially wifehood and motherhood. Therefore, by reporting historical evidences and examples of oppression of women and relying on the moral value of seeking justice, on the cruelty of marriage and as a result its immorality, they try to make arguments for amending the laws related to marriage or abolishing it in general. to establish In this article, the feminists' point of view about the immorality of marriage has been examined and criticized.

 Chastity is one of the moral concepts that, although it is discussed in the Greek philosophical ethics as one of the four virtues, it has a special place in the system of values of religious ethics. The Qur'an pays special attention to the issue of chastity and its role in personal and social health, and it has been specifically addressed in some surahs, including Surah Noor. By examining the place of chastity in Surah Noor, it can be seen that God has mentioned individual and social chastity and the means of obtaining it in connected and related verses.Types of chastity cover different aspects of human life and men and women are called to observe chastity and self-restraint both in their looks and in their speech. Also, the strategies to spread this moral virtue in the society can be used from the verses of Surah Noor.After stating the types of chastity in Surah Noor about chastity, the present research has analyzed them in a descriptive-analytical way and by using library data and interpretation method, especially the interpretation opinions of Ayatollah Javadi Amoli. From the conducted investigations, it is concluded that according to Ayatollah Javadi-Amoli, chastity is a sensual state that prevents lust from overpowering a person and is also used in instinctive and financial matters. and practical solutions in learning and spreading chastity; Trying to refine the self is to hide the sexual relations of spouses, to promote the culture of marriage and to have the ability to control sensual desires.

Normative ethics is a significant branch of moral philosophy that delves into the discussion of criteria and standards for ethical value. Following the acquaintance of Muslim thinkers with Western ethics, some of them endeavored to present a teleological/consequential interpretation of Islamic ethics. Ayatollah Misbah Yazdi was the first to offer a teleological interpretation of Islamic ethics, although he did not choose a specific title or name for his theory and did not explicitly define it as either consequentialist or egoist. One contemporary ethicist has developed an egoistic / self-centered interpretation of Islamic ethics, naming it “Super utilitarianism,” while another contemporary ethicist, while embracing a consequential interpretation, has critiqued and modified J. Bentham's seven criteria based on the teachings and principles of the Quran. In fact, many Muslim ethicists, after examining the verses of the Quran, have deemed the Islamic ethical theory compatible with teleologism / consequentialism and have even presented egoistic interpretations of Islamic ethics. There is no doubt the before offering a teleological or egoistic interpretations of Islamic ethics, it is crucial to address the important question of whether teleologism / consequentialism is compatible with the foundations and teachings of Islam. This article examines the possibility of presenting a teleological interpretation of Islamic ethics.

Undoubtedly, hedonism can completely encompass human life and give it a hedonistic meaning and concept. This issue has caused the question to be raised, to what extent is hedonism morally correct? And in the field of theory, what relation can it have with ethics? Can hedonism be justified and moral? The research method in this article is descriptive-analytical. The findings of the research indicate that the relationship between ethics and hedonism is drawn from the way of examining the idealism of pleasure and the nature of hedonism . Despite the fact that a group of moral philosophers have gone so far as to consider pleasure as an intrinsic good and consider the criterion of moral value and moral judgment to be dependent on it and have organized hedonistic ethics; But pleasure cannot be an intrinsic good and the criterion of moral value, and hedonistic actions can be considered moral only in some cases. According to Islamic teachings, Although pleasure is not an evil thing and the pleasures of the afterlife are real and original; However, it is not the ultimate purpose.

Today, attention to animal rights has a special place, and one of the famous moral philosophers who pay special attention to animal rights is Peter Singer. He has raised several reasons for the wrongness of human use of animals, including the argument of speciesism and the wrongness of inflicting pain and suffering on animals. In addition to these two arguments, he has paid close attention to the relationship between excessive use of animals and environmental destruction. Today, a significant share of environmental destruction is caused by industrial livestock farms, which, by producing meat, destroy plant resources, emit greenhouse gases, and damage nature. Singer considers the situation caused by the way humans treat animals and considers it related to religious teachings about humans and animals. Considering meat-eating as immoral and rejecting religion's opinion on this, he suggests vegetarianism to preserve the environment. In this article, while examining and criticizing this argument, it is clear that the most important factor of environmental destruction is excessive and undesirable use of animals by humans. The problem of the environment can be solved by modifying the attitude of man towards the environment and how to organize his use of nature, which is also emphasized by religion. If the human use of the environment, of which the animal is a part, is done in a purposeful and responsible manner, it will not only cause the destruction of the environment, but it will also lead to its better preservation and, as a result, respect for the animal's rights. The need to emphasize the reform of the structure instead of banning consumption, paying attention to the harms of vegetarianism, and the need to properly understand the opinion of religion, especially Islam, are among the criticisms that can be made to Singer.

One of the important moral issues dating back to ancient Greece is whether moral knowledge is independent of God's command or dependent upon it. The Mu'tazilites and Imāmiyya believe that reason is able to understand many moral values and that moral knowledge is intellectual and independent from God; therefore, it is superior to religion and even proving the existence of God and popular prophecy are feasible only by perceiving some moral values through reason. By adopting a descriptive and analytical approach through rereading and scrutinizing the moral verses of the Koran, this study seeks to answer the following question: what is the function of moral propositions of the Koran given the understanding of these propositions through reason? The results shows that the main purpose of the Holy Koran is moral education, acceptance and reference to previous moral knowledge of human being not imparting erudition. Various pieces of evidence can be presented on this claim, including keeping one's promise, gratefulness, following prototypes in moral advice and using the language of sermons instead of lecture and argument.

Moral utilitarianism is one of the most significant and common theories in normative ethics, which gained prominence with the utilitarian utterance of Bentham's crime, and different interpretations of it have always been presented with various modifications. Some Muslim thinkers, familiar with Bentham's theory of utilitarianism, have tried to make it compatible with Quranic teachings by adding a clause or constraint. In addition, they have considered Quranic verses to support Bentham's seven criteria. The basic objection of such thinkers to Bentham is that he has limited profit to pleasure only, and that is worldly pleasure, while from the point of view of religion, profit and pleasure are both worldly benefits, pleasures and include the pleasures of the Hereafter. The important point is that before we look for the verses that confirm Bentham's utilitarian theory and his seven criteria, we must see whether there is any possibility of a new interpretation of utilitarianism based on the verses of the Quran. Therefore, in this article, in addition to reviewing and criticizing this view, the impossibility of a new interpretation of utilitarianism based on the verses of the Quran is explained.

Morality is one of the most important issues for humans and a common concern of human beings. Talking about the importance of morality, prompts people to think about this question: why should we live moral? The answer to this question can be found among the various functions that thinkers have proposed for ethics, because if the subject's knowledge confirms the usefulness of the action, then the subject will be motivated to do it. Therefore, the functions of an action can be an answer to why the action is performed. One of the functions of moral life is to increase the chance of survival, which has been introduced by moral evolutionists. The question of the present article is: how much this function can create motivation for a person to perform a moral act? Can the agent's knowledge that ethical life increases the chances of survival, motivate her/him to observe moral values? By considering the challenge of not believing in resurrection and sacrificing life, and many problems in life and the difficulties of ethical life, this result is obtained that although increasing the chance of survival can motivate a person to live morally, but Just increasing the chances of survival is not worth accepting the costs of being moral and does not provide enough motivation to endure the hardships of moral life. Therefore, evolutionary ethics is facing the challenge of lack of explanatory power for moral motivations and it cannot be accepted as a comprehensive theory in the field of moral motivation.

Exalted Ethical utilitarianism is one of the theories of normative ethics that has many supporters, and it can be said that today moral utilitarianism, which is one of its sub-branches, is the dominant theory in Western moral philosophy. Although virtue ethics is a theory that has been prevalent among Muslim thinkers until the present era, but with their familiarity with new theories about ethics, including consequentialism and utilitarianism, some have tried to explain the theory of Islamic ethics and show its compatibility with the Qur'an and hadiths.
Therefore, considering the importance of moral utilitarianism and its attractions, Mansour Nasiri has proposed a version of this theory that not only does not have the problems of common utilitarianism, but is also compatible with Islamic teachings, and he called it  exalted utilitarianism. In this article, in a descriptive, analytical and critical manner, in addition to a report of this interpretation and its criticism, its incompatibility with religious teachings is also shown.

A systematization of religious propositions concerning Islamic punishments, particularly qişāş (retaliation in kind), and extraction of the principles governing their legislation play a significant part in understanding the philosophy behind their legislation and how to respond to objections raised against them, since it is only in this way that the ground is prepared for a systematic reply. Drawing on the descriptive-analytic method and considering the human existential dimensions and the human developmental course in Islamic psychology, this article seeks to extract theological principles, a proper deployment of which clarifies the philosophy of the legislation of qişāş and paves the path for presenting counterexamples or explanatory replies to objections raised against this ruling. Based on the findings of this article, there are five relevant theological principles: (1) the principle of human inherent dignity, (2) principle of guidance and salvation, (3) principle of justice and fulfilment of rights, (4) principle of life as well as individual and social dynamics, and (5) principle of deterrence in punishment. These are the principles governing the punishment of qişāş. This article utilizes the implications of these principles and their priorities to reply to some objections raised against qişāş, including the superiority of life prison to qişāş and its incompatibility with altruistic and human dignity considerations.

A human serious concern throughout history and especially during the presentepoch is war and its potential damages. Theorists have always attempted toexamine war in many respects and weighed up its legitimacy legally and morally.Since ancient Greece, moral philosophers have concerned themselves about themoral assessment of war. There are three known theories regarding the ethics ofwar: realism, pacifism, and just war theory. Realism as a common view is dividedinto two kinds: descriptive and prescriptive, and prescriptive realism is classifiedinto two parts: moralized and cautionary. According to cautionary prescriptiverealism, the only way for states to promote interests inexpensively is byabandoning moral principles and taking precautionary measures to protectinterests. This theory holds that accepting realism helps promote peace amongstates while accepting just war theory may lead to war expansion. In this paper,arguments for cautionary prescriptive realism will be critically explored

Philosophy for children is a modern curriculum in the course of the betterment of philosophizing and thinking for the children; this effort claims a new approach in moral education called "ethical inquiry". Liza's plan has good educational capacities for creating a sphere of caretaking creative and critical thinking, some of its principles do not match up with those of Islamic education, though. It is thus necessary to take into consideration the axiological principles of her plan in order to make use of its positive capacities. To do so, after their analytical survey of Liza's story (the story of ethical values of the plan) and its guide (ethical inquiry), the authors have brought out its axiological principles and then compared them to those of transcendent theosophy. The results show that moral education of transcendent theosophy stands on absolutism, realism in moral values, and meaningfulness of divine values. Such a moral system would determine a sphere different from that of Liza's plan of ethical inquiry with relativism in moral values, conventionalism in ethics, and meaninglessness of divine values. Of course, having maintained the principles of transcendent theosophy we can enjoy the positive capacities of Liza's plan remedying its deficiencies in the light of the comprehensive education of people who are perfect moral and God-seekers.

Since the beginning of theological disputes, philosophical reflections on ethics and morality were found among scholars of kalām. One might say that the first serious discussion on the matter was the well-known controversy between Ashʿarite and Muʿtazilite theologians over the goodness (ḥusn) and badness (qubḥ) of actions. Ashʿarite theologians believed that goodness and badness were God-dependent, while Muʿtazilite and Imami theologians believed that they were God- independent. Moreover, philosophical contemplation of morality can be found in the works of Muslim ethicists, and a formulation of Aristotle’s virtue ethics often appears in some ethical works. In the last century, philosophical consideration of morality remarkably flourished in the West, such that a whole field is devoted to it under moral philosophy. Since one hundred years have passed since the established of the Seminary of Qom, now the question arises of the status of moral philosophy in the Islamic Seminary in the last century and its future directions. To examine such a significant issue, we should study two historical periods: before and after the victory of the Islamic Revolution in Iran, since there is a considerable difference here. In this article, I aim to analyze and examine the status of moral philosophy in the Islamic Seminary in the last century. I conclude that, before the victory of the Islamic Revolution, moral philosophy was not commonly addressed, the only exception being Ayatollah Motahhari, while after the victory of the Islamic Revolution, moral philosophy was developed in diverse fields such as meta-ethics, theoretical normative ethics, and applied ethics.

Being one of the most important elements of government in many countries today, parliament possesses a wide range of duties and authorities. The primary duty of parliament is to legislate on different matters for government and people; that parliament does so in a good manner depends on the unique role it plays in the happiness or failure of a nation. In the course of legislation, the members of parliament encounter such complex situations that it would be extremely difficult to recognize and act upon their moral duties in some cases. The most serious moral challenge for a member of parliament to pass a law is to deal with cases in which the different kinds of conflicting interests arise. In this paper, we attempt to explain and examine the most serious moral challenges confronting the members of parliament in the process of legislation, and to develop some methods for solving these challenges. Moreover, new approaches are presented to avoid a number of these challenges.

For a long time, human beings have been wishing to improve the genetic composition of their generation and clearing it of some disabilities and defects, and this concern has always been pursued in different ways in different eras. The existence of authoritarian and racist policies and discriminatory methods in the old Eugenics made it easy to rule that it was immoral, but it is somewhat difficult to judge the liberal and new Eugenics because one group, citing the scientific contexts and social contexts resulting from the advances in genetics and the values of liberal societies, dictates its moralization, while the other group, despite these contexts, still retains the relevant ethical challenges.One of these important challenges is the violation of the principle of justice, albeit in a different way than in the past. Injustice in the old Eugenics was discriminatory due to the imposition of a Eugenics program on a particular class, and the manifestation of injustice in the new Eugenics is that by prescribing that its benefits belong to certain classes, it is not possible for the public to benefit from it. The author of this article believes that various ethical challenges still exist in the liberal and modern Eugenics program with a focus on the principle of justice, and the present article seeks to identify, examine and analyze them from a point of view.The findings of this paper are that some of the ethical considerations related to the application of the principle of justice to Eugenics are:Although some solutions may be effective at some level, it is not possible to provide an absolute and general solution for all cases of breeding.Bioethical issues such as Eugenics due to their multifaceted nature, need the consideration of the requirements of various principles and some contextual considerations related to cultural and social conditions and indigenous and regional situations.It is necessary to have appropriate programs to eliminate the factors that incite immoral attitudes and prejudices against the disabled.Despite the context in which it has been made, advocates of liberal Eugenics themselves admit that the challenge of discrimination remains and have an unprecedented impact on genocide and the rise of racism.The well-being of individuals in society depends on the fair distribution of the benefits and resources of Eugenics in a fair social context, and the prescription and distribution of these resources in a society with defective and unjust structures will not have the desired effect.

 The development of reproductive technologies and the advancement of prenatal diagnostic tests have posed many ethical challenges to abortion for abnormalities. The purpose of this article is to critique Savulescu's argument on the permissible abortion license based on the Principle of Procreative Beneficence and to provide a detailed interpretation of this principle based on the separation of pre-pregnancy and post-pregnancy period.

 In this analytical study, after a purposeful search and review of the literature, the Principle of Procreative Beneficence regarding abortion of the disabled is explained and the criticisms that others have applied about this principle are examined and analyzed with a rational approach.

Ethical Considerations:

 In this research, ethical aspects including the authenticity of the texts, honesty and trustworthiness have been observed.

 A number of principles have been introduced in the decision to become pregnant and to select non-diseased genes; Including the principle of Procreative Autonomy, Principle of Non-Directive Counselling and the `Best Interests of the Child' Principle, however, according to Savulescu, none of these principles can provide the right path for the selection of diseased and non-diseased genes. Thus, Savulescu introduces the Principle of Procreative Beneficence and focuses on the selection of non-diseased genes in the application of this principle. In the examples presented by him, there is no distinction in applying this principle to before and after pregnancy; While the principle of post-pregnancy reproductive benefits leads to termination of pregnancy for fetal abnormality; it is therefore not morally acceptable, even though, it is acceptable in the period before pregnancy.

 Although the application of the Principle of Procreative Beneficence in the post-pregnancy period has morally problems; But this principle can be used to select non-diseased or healthy genes before attempting to conceive and help parents to have a healthy child.

The rapid advances of scientists in the field of biotechnology and genetic engineering have made the ethical principle of non-harm in the field of biological sciences a special place. The production of genetically modified foods is one of the latest advances in biotechnology. Today, the debate over the safety and health of genetically modified foods is a controversial issue around the world. The purpose of this article is to evaluate the health of genetically modified foods by emphasizing the ethical principle of not harming humans referring to available evidence.

The method of this research is descriptive-analytical and the collection of information has been done by library method.

 In this article, honesty and trustworthiness have been observed.

Solving the problem of global hunger, improving food quality, improving the economic situation of farmers and maintaining environmental health are the most important benefits of producing genetically modified foods. The production of genetically modified foods has been introduced as a suitable solution to meet human nutritional needs, while the health and safety of these foods are disputed. Opponents do not accept the safety and health of these foods due to scientific disagreement and the potential dangers, and believe that the ethical principle of non-harm is not observed in the production of genetically modified foods. In contrast, proponents, because of the scientific consensus on the safety and health of genetically modified foods, the results of case studies, and the successful experience of the American people, claim the safety and health of genetically modified foods and the harmonization of their production with ethics.

The production of genetically modified foods has significant benefits, but there are many unknowns about the disadvantages of using this technology. The existence of potential hazards in the production of genetically modified foods and scientific uncertainty about the occurrence of these hazards is a reason to implement the principle of caution in the production of these foods.

Marriage is a lasting and dynamic institution that has played a significant and undeniable role in the development and evolution of human societies. History reveals a wide variety of patterns of marriage in different eras. Historical debates and developments in marriage pave the way for differences in the approaches of moral philosophers to the issue of marriage. In modern times, some philosophers have presented various arguments against the morality of marriage. Dan Moller considers marriage as conditional on love and believes that couples who promise to love each other promise something beyond human will. After explaining the different ways in which a marriage contract is made, he argues that none of the marriage contracts are permanent and that most of them fail and end in divorce, and that marriage is therefore immoral and wrong. In this paper, Moller’ argument is critically reviewed by rational analysis. There are several drawbacks to Moller’s argument, including; voluntary nature of the expression of emotions, ignoring the value of happy days of married people, the non-necessity of love for marriage in different periods and the nativity of the argument. This article also provides a definition of love based on moral virtues. Accordingly, love is in fact love of excellences and virtues, and it disappears when the loved one loses his excellences and virtues. As a result, the continuation of love depends on the couples strengthening their virtues and perfections. So marriage is conditioned on the growth of moral virtues and mutual respect of couples.

The world's population is growing exponentially, and people are facing significant problems such as hunger and extreme malnutrition. According to some people, the production of genetically modified foods can be a good solution to provide healthy and adequate food and thus solve global hunger. The production of genetically modified foods has also met with much opposition. A group of opponents, by presenting theological reasons, consider the production of genetically modified foods to be immoral and disgusting on their own, regardless of the consequences. This paper seeks to examine and critique the most important theological reasons for opposing the production of genetically modified foods, such as playing the role of God, crossing species boundaries, violating the intrinsic value of plants and animals, and changing creation. The results show that these reasons are not sufficiently convincing and cannot prove the immorality of the production of genetically modified foods, although this is not necessarily the case.

One of the latest advances in biotechnology is genetically modified (GM) foods. The production of GM foods is a controversial issue worldwide. The most important and controversial issue in the production of GM foods is ethics. Some people believe that their production is morally right, while others consider the production of these foods to be unjustified and immoral. According to the principle of beneficence, proving the ethics of producing GM foods is only possible by carefully evaluating its advantages and disadvantages and the superiority of the benefits. Opponents believe that the production of this type of food has irreparable disadvantages, some of which are known and some are still unknown. Damage to human health and the environment and the creation of economic, social and political problems are among the most important reasons for opposition. On the other hand, proponents of the production of GM foods enumerate significant advantages. Solving the problem of global hunger, improving the quality of food, and improving the economic situation of farmers are among the most important reasons for the proponents of the morality of the production of GM foods. In the present study, the reasons of the proponents of GM food production are examined and criticized through descriptive and analytical methods. Studies show that although the production of GM foods is associated with significant benefits, there are drawbacks to the opponents’ reasons, and the production of GM foods requires more research and experiments.

“Philosophy for children” is a new subject in modern syllabus of education in the course of improvement of practicing philosophy and reason for children. Despite its good capacity to make a room for thinking and creativity, this plan has principles irreconcilable with those of Iranian local philosophy. It is thus necessary to scrutinize its philosophical principles. Due to the importance of ethics and moral training as one aim of such a plan learnt by the kids by means of story, this article studies the principles of ethical relativism of Liza’s story and its guide (the content of Lipman’s plan for moral training) and compares it to Transcendent Theosophy. A descriptive-analytic study of the content proves that, despite Lipman’s rejection of relativism, his denial of the absolute good and his voice that values and thinking are personal and prepared by a ground are documents denoting that the content is morally relativistic. Since it fails to free from the strains of conventionalism and its lack of fixed criteria, this content suffers from relativism and its consequences. In contrast, Transcendent Theosophy is safe from the harm of relativism because it considers the ethical propositions absolute and adapts an ontological and virtue-ethic attitude. It has thus more appropriate axiological principles in the creation of a coherent plan for moral training.

Rational education is undoubtedly one of the most important goals of educational systems and also plays an important role in Islamic education and is emphasized by religious verses and texts. Of course, rational education is not in conflict with value, religious and even mystical education, just as the integration of argument, the Qur'an and mystics can be observed in transcendent wisdom. The Philosophy for Children program is also one of the new educational programs to improve the process of philosophizing and thinking in children and claims a new approach in intellectual education called " The community of inquiry". It is Islamic. For this purpose, it is necessary to pay attention to its philosophical foundations in order to use the positive capacities of this program. Of course, in this context, due to the importance and direct relationship between epistemological foundations and intellectual training, this basis is examined. For this purpose, after reviewing and analyzing this program, its epistemological foundations are extracted and compared with the foundations derived from transcendent wisdom. The results show that transcendent wisdom can provide a different educational environment for children with a epistemological basis such as the possibility of access to certainty, absolutism, variety of tools and sources of knowledge and the possibility of religious knowledge and divine philosophy, which in addition to using positive capacities. The Philosophy for Children program addresses its shortcomings in educating a comprehensive God-seeking thinker.

Eugenics and improving the human race is a challenging issues in moral philosophy, reminding us of Hitler''''s immoral and racist policies and the forced sterilization of old eugenics practices. Todaygenetic interventions are not done in old compulsory way due to genetic advancement, and parents are more likely to be free to choose their child''''s type and characteristics. Some people have appealed to the foundations of genetic engineering and the consolidation of individualist values ​​in liberal societies to claim that a great portion of ethical issues concerning old eugenics has been resolved, especially in the area of freedom, and today there is a liberal eugenics which does not suffer from the moral problems of old eugenics. In contrast,some people rely on examples such as the contradiction between the principle of parental freedom with community-based moral norms and its contradiction with the children liberty to suggest that liberal eugenics continues to face challenges, limiting the freedom of parenting and this must be morally considered. This article attempts to analyze some of the challenges of adapting the principle of liberty to liberal eugenics and propose solutions to ensure that this ethical principle is applied to liberal eugenics.

Even if we take Sophocles’s writing about civil disobedience to be philosophically irrelevant, we cannot close our eyes to Socrates and his philosophical view of such disobedience. When he was wrongly sentenced to death by the Athenian government, he refused to listen to his friends, disobey the issued ruling, and escape from the prison, because he considered civil disobedience as contrary to virtues and social conventions. The view was, however, adamantly opposed by people who believed that laws are sometimes so unjust that it is necessary to resist them with civil disobedience as the last possible way. Given the two views about civil disobedience, the fundamental question is which act is admirable towards unjust laws: should we keep obeying unjust laws in any possible ways, or can we object to them and force the government to acquiesce to reforms? In this paper, we seek to answer this question by criticizing and considering arguments from Ancient Greece and the Enlightenment period, and then uncover their internal contradictions.