جهانبخش ثواقب

Safavid relations with their neighbors during the reign of Shah Safi experienced a period of military conflicts and border disturbances, although the Uzbek invasions of Khorasan did not achieve anything for them, the Ottoman government separated Baghdad from Iran and Kandahar also came under the control of Gurkanians. The occurrence of these events was a sign of the weakness and inefficiency of Shah Safi in the administration of the country, which made the neighbors try to implement their goals in the disputed areas after the death of Shah Abbas I. The secession of Kandahar created another chapter in the relations between Iran and India over this state and strained the relations between the Safavids and Gurkanians once again, although it did not lead to a serious crisis in the relations between the parties. In this study, the relations between the Safavids and the Gurkanians during the era of Shah Safi and Shah Jahan, the causes and contexts, especially the conflict over Kandahar and its implications, are examined and analyzed in a descriptive-analytical way. The findings show that Kandahar, as in the past, was the main factor in the formation of bilateral relations, and Shah Jahan's actions to seize this state made the relations between the two governments fragile. However, it did not lead to the complete severance of relations or India's military action against Iran.

ʿIbāda (Arabic: هعباد (is one of the important topics discussed in Nahj alBalāgha (Arabic: غه ل ن هج ٱ ب ل , lit. means the path of eloquence), which shows how a monotheistic and believer person relates to the afterlife (al-ākhirah, معاد :Arabic (resurrection or) اآل خ ره :Arabic , Maʿād). The worship has many constructive effects for the individual and society from Imām ʿAlī’s point of view, and makes people more and more familiar with worship by believing in the Hereafter, the world after death, which is one of the pillars of the belief of Islam along with tawḥīd (Arabic: تت ت د التویت (or Monotheism and Nubuwwa (Arabic: تتیده تتب التت (or Prophethood, and stimulates the believer’s actions in believer. Paying attention to perform religious worships will make man to be adorned with divine morality and his bodily limbs will obey God’s commands. The influence of belief in Ākhirah (Arabic: ره خ اآل, derived from Akhir which means last, ultimate, end or close that is an Arabic term for “the Hereafter”) on the performance of acts of worships by the believer and the manifestation of a kind of faithful lifestyle has been investigated in this article by using a descriptive-analytical method and referring to the words of ʾAmīr al-Muʾminīn (Arabic: ن ومم رال ام (in Nahj al-Balāgha. The findings of the research indicate that there is a two-way relationship between worship and belief in the Hereafter, which means that performing acts of worship strengthens the belief in the Hereafter and strives more to achieve a better Hereafter, and on the other hand, belief in the Hereafter makes a person more familiar with worship. The moral consequences and transcendence resulting from performing divine worship have a direct effect on man’s way of looking at God, the world, the afterlife, and the type of his accepted values, and will lead to better thoughts, speeches, and most importantly, good deeds, which will be effective in creating the Islamic lifestyle in society.

Heroism reviews the role of the hero or prominent figures in the advancement of historical events, and its extreme form leads to ignoring the social conditions and contexts in the events.In the history of Iran, there have been many historians who have been influenced by this attitude and have described the life of a king and the events of his time in the form of writing Sultani monologues and with a world-opening and cosmopolitan view.One of these examples is Shah Ismail I Safavid, who is described as a supernatural savior hero and related to the divine world, and his wonderful life is depicted.In this article, the purpose of representing the character of Shah Ismail is the theory of the hero in history by the method of library and text research in historical texts.The research shows that the historians of the Safavid era highlighted Shah Ismail, that all the events were formed around the king-hero axis, and that social conditions and human factors played a role in the character of the hero's action.

The rulers of the Buyid the ruling dynasty of Iran Having overcome Baghdad, large sections From the realm of the Islamic world During the fourth and fifth centuries Hijri under the command. In the territory under the command of Bozhiayan, And with the support of the emirs and the ministers of this dynasty, the intellectual sciences, which include all kinds of wisdom, Principles and foreshadows of each of the four divine, natural, mathematical, Ethics and science of the word, he flourished and flourished. Other contemporary Shiite governments with al-Buwayh did not succeed as much as they did. This research is a descriptive-analytic method, while explaining the role Buyids in the growth of rational sciences, on how the emirs behaved and the ministers in this regard. The research findings indicate In the light of the Amirs, along with their ministers, used Greek and Syriac translations to attract scholars from the scientific achievements of Muslim scholars and scholarly scholars of Jews and Christians. Also, creating educational and research centers that have led to the emergence of talents, they have taken great strides in the development of intellectual sciences.

The Shia Safavid government was established in the 16th century AD (10th century AH) in the vicinity of the 200-year-old Ottoman government and the newly established Uzbek government, both of which were Sunni. The religious policy of Shah Ismail I (1501-1524 AD/907-930 AH) was based on the expansion of Shiism, which was in contrast with the religious policy of his neighbors, who were preachers and promoters of the Sunni religion. In addition to the fact that this issue caused religious disputes and repeated wars with the Safavids from both sides, it led to the convergence of the two Ottoman and Uzbek governments against the Safavids. The purpose of this research is to examine how Ottoman and Uzbek political relations were established and its consequences on the Safavids in the 16th century AD, with a descriptive-analytical method. The findings show that the formation and stabilization of Safavid rule, the development of its territory, and the Shiiteization of society, which was accompanied by the increase in the number of Shiites, caused concern to the Ottoman and Uzbek governments. Therefore, due to the common religion and the difference in religious policy with the Safavids, the two governments, with the aim of overthrowing and resorting to the issuance of Takfiri fatwas and the declaration of jihad, strengthened relations with each other against this government and established the idea of political and military unity by sending ambassadors, writing letters and sending military aid.

After consolidating their power and government in Egypt (965-1171), the Ismaili Fātimids fought with the Abbasid caliphate (749-1258) and tried to overthrow it, with the intention of spreading Ismāili thought throughout the Islamic world and controlling it. One of their policies to achieve this goal was the expansion of the Fatimid da'wah activity in different areas and military activities in the regions under the Abbasid rule to advance in these areas and infleunce them. One of the areas that could be used as a base for both types of missionary and military activities of the Fātimids was Al-Jazira province, whose territorial position and social context allowed the Fatimids to control Baghdad and overthrow the Abbasids and make reaching the eastern territory of the Abbasid Caliphate easier. This descriptive-analytical article aimed to analyze the policies of the Fātimids, especially their military activities in Al-Jazira provicne, and to answer the question of the policy the Fātimids adopted to stay in that province. The findings of the research show that due to the geographical-strategic importance and demographic structure of the tribes with manpower, the Fātimids tried both through the activities of their claimants and through alliances with local rulers and the military activities of the supporting commanders, to be present in Al-Jazira province.

Sufi sects such as Chishtiyya, Suhravardiyya, Kazeroniyya and Kobraviyya, which gathered many followers and established their monasteries in many parts of Iran and India in the 7th-9th centuries AH. They are considered the most important known Sufism movements in the India and Iran. The khanqahs of the mentioned tariqas were the living places of their dignitaries, Chiefs and elders and many disciples were always with them. People, also, visited these Khanqahs daily to resolve their spiritual and material needs. The spiritual life of Sufis (from top to bottom) has had two dimensions, spiritual and material. Contrary to popular belief, Sufi life was not based on absolute asceticism and Sufis had to financed their daily material needs. By a descriptive- analytical method, this Study seek to answer this question how the financial expenses of the Sufi Khanqahs of the mentioned tariqas in the subcontinent of India and Iran were financed. It seems that the major part of the expenses of the Khanqahs of the Sufi orders of Chishtiyya, Suhravardiyya, Kazeroniyya and Kobraviyya were provided by means of goods and cash donations received from the sultans of the subcontinent of India and Iran, daily gifts (=Fotuh) from the common people (both rich and poor), and large payments from merchants. In this sense, there have been many commonalities between these Tariqas.

The important action of Shah Ismail I (907-930 A.H.) in recognizing the Shia religion in Iran, and establishing a link between religion and politics in the Safavid government, played a major role in creating political unity and forming national and territorial identity.After the formation of the government, the Safavids realized that they needed extensive cultural and civilizational measures to establish this religion in the society and institutionalize it.These measures were made possible by utilizing the capacity of religious institutions and Shiite scholars. Safavid made extensive efforts for cultural and civil measures in line with the policy of Shiite of the society and stabilization of the position of this religion.By building mosques as a religious base that had the task of promoting Shia belief and jurisprudence in society, and by rebuilding Shia shrines and Imamzadeh mosque, the Safavids were able to institutionalize and expand Shi’ism in Iranian culture and expand mosques and build religious buildings. The purpose of this article is to investigate the role of the mosque in disseminating Shia education in the Iranian society of the Safavid era, in a descriptive-analytical way. The findings of the research have shown that during the Safavid era, with the expansion of the tradition of building mosques and rebuilding and reforming previous mosques, this religious base was used favorably with the help of Shia scholars in promoting and disseminating Shia knowledge in the society.

During the reign of Shah Sultan Hossein Safavi (1105-1135 A.H./1694-1722 A.D.), Iran's sovereignty over the Persian Gulf and the islands and ports of its northern bank underwent instability, which on the one hand, was intensified by the competition of European East India companies, and on the other hand, the rebellions of the Omani Arabs in the sea and the attacks of the Baluchs on the coasts added to this instability. The efforts of the last Safavid king to get the joint cooperation of powers such as England, Holland, France and Portugal to stabilize the situation were unsuccessful, and the agreement of military cooperation between Iran and Portugal in restraining the movements of Arabs in the sea also ended with the attack of Afghans on the capital and the decay of the Safavid dynasty, had no results. In this study, the developments in the Persian Gulf parallel to the rule of the last Safavid king and his policy towards this water area have been investigated and analyzed in a descriptive-analytical approach. The findings of the study showed that during this era, the naval movements and the invasions of the Arabs of Muscat, the competition and interference of the European powers and the shaky and ineffective policy of Shah Sultan Hossein caused the chaotic situation in the Persian Gulf and the instability of the Safavid rule on this important waterway have been effective.

The formation of the Safavid state (1501-1722) happened with the help of the presence and power of Qizilbāsh soldiers affiliated with Turkmen tribes, who established a morid-morad relationship with the Safavid sheikhs and kings with the religious connection of the Safavid Sūfī order in Ardabil. This relationship was strengthened with the officialization of the Shi'a religion in Iran, in the form of Shāhelahi-Ghāzī, a passionate Shi'a-Sūfī warrior. These soldiers achieved various privileges in the Safavid government due to their military role in the battles of Shah Ismail (1501-1524) with the ruling families, internal rulers and rival ruling dynasties such as the Ottomans and the Uzbeks and their efforts in the establishment, stabilization and continuation of the Safavid government. And after the royal family, they were placed in the second position of the social pyramid and power structure. This research aimed to investigate the status and privileges of Qizilbāsh militaries in the government of Shāh Ismāil I, using a descriptive-analytical method based on the data of library sources. The basis of the investigation was identifying the determining factor in the status and privileges of Qizilbāsh troops in Shah Ismail's government. The research assumption emphasizes the military strength and tribal support of the militaries as the determining factor. The findings of the research showed that the basis of Shāh Ismāil's power was related to the presence and power of Qizilbāsh soldiers. The various roles of these soldiers in the field of militarism, internal relations, the government of the states, as lala (statesmen) of the princes and even in the field of foreign relations, depicted the multiplicity of duties and responsibilities of the soldiers in this period, and raised their position and scope of influence in the government, so that they were appointed as chief officials of the government.

The continuation of the Alawite system, led by Imam Ali in the continuation of the prophetic system, is one of the strategic ideas of Lady Fatima, who gave her life in defense and struggle to explain its principles and its practical realization in society. Lady Fatima, as an example of a perfect human being in the school of Islam, after the death of the Messenger of God, along with religiosity and piety, in the role of a socio-political activist, in defense of the Alawite leadership, took a stand and took practical action. In order to defend the Alawite leadership and system, in his two major and minor sermons, he explained the developments of the Islamic society and the changes that took place among the ummah, enlightening and raising awareness. In this article, in a descriptive-analytical method, with emphasis on the sermons of Lady Zahra against the changes in society at the beginning of the Islamic Caliphate, the position of Lady Zahra has been studied. The findings of this study show that the struggle of Lady in the context of religious mission and based on Quranic insight, was a scholastic struggle to establish the Alawite system under the leadership of Imam Ali against the Quraysh eldership and the caliphate system derived from the Saqifa discourse.

There were many Sufi orders in a wide area of India and Iran in the 7th-9th centuries. Sufis, who were known as a symbol of asceticism and worldliness, were engaged in austerity and self-cultivation by withdrawing from the world and settling in a  Khanqah “monastery”. Providing for the living expenses of the Khanqah residents was the responsibility of the murshid, which was realized in different ways, one of which was estate and land ownership. Since most of these estates were given to the monastery by the sultans, and because working on the land was somehow considered an obstacle to austerity, accepting or rejecting these grants as well as land ownership became an issue for the Sufis, who had different sects, attitudes and practices. They expressed different opinions about this. . By descriptive and analytical method, this Study, seeks to answer the question that the attitude of the Sufis of the mentioned tariqas in India and Iran in the 7th-9th centuries AD. How was it related to land ownership and the income from it?This study is based on the hypothesis that there was no necessary harmony between the theoretical teachings and the practical behavior of the sheikhs of the Tariqas  in the 7th and 9th centuries of Hijri in Iran and India; As the sheikhs of the three of studied tariqas(i.e, Cheshtiyyeh, Kobraviyyeh and Sohravardiyyeh), by deviating from the theoretical teachings based on recommending the disciples to religious practices and asceticism, in order to finance the expenses of their Khanqahs, they tended to land ownership, but the performance of the sheikhs of Kazeruniyyeh was different from the other three sects.

The geographical location of Dulghadϊr Emirate (1339-1521), which was located in an area bordered with both Ottoman and Safavid territories, caused it to be affected by the political circumstances of these two governments. Dulghadϊr government, which sought to find an ally and join a more powerful government for its survival, adopted a contradictory policy in relation to the Safavid and Ottoman governments. At the beginning of the formation of the Safavid government, the Dulghadϊr were supporters and obedient to Shāh Ismāil I (1501-1524), then they supported his enemy, i.e. Murād Beg Aq Quyūnlu (1500-1508). On the other hand, Dulghadϊr ruler also took the path of hypocrisy towards the Ottoman government. Sultān Selim I (1512-1520), who witnessed Alā-al-dawlah Dulghadϊr's (1479-1515) continuous failures towards the Ottomans, took advantage of the weakness of this government and attacked Dulghadϊr, defeating its government and capturing its territory. This paper is aimed to investigate the effect of the Dulghadϊr conflict with the both Safavid and Ottoman governments on the process of the fall of the Dulghadϊr Emirate, in a descriptive-analytical way.

Reports point out that during diplomatic contacts and trade ties between Iranand the West during the Safavid era, cultural and artistic exchanges have alsooccurred, whose scope though was not vast. These travels and the traveloguereports resulting thereof, have reflected the various dimensions of the Iraniancivilizational aspects and introduced them to the Europeans; as they have alsorevealed some of the civilizational aspects of Europe to Iran for comparision andadaptation sake. The goal of this paper is looking into the manifestations andforms of cultural and artistic interactions between Iran and Europe during theSafavid era, using the descriptive-analytical method. The findings of the researchindicate that the expansion of Iran/Europe ties in this period, also trigerred somesorts of cultural and artistic interaction, leading to Iranians getting familiar withsome of the Europeans cultural and artistic aspects in painting, music, and otherspheres and this made some developments in the Iranian culture and art. TheEuropeans, have also been active in these spheres and in scientific dialogues,translation of some literary works to the European languages, transfering of theIranian artistic works and reflection of the Iranian lifestyle and civilization to theEuropeans.

European tourists visiting Iran in the Safavid era, in terms of their mission and their desire to know Iran and its reflection in the West, to investigate the various territorial, geographical, social, economic, religious, cultural, scientific, and other aspects of biological and civilizational life. Iran that era and provided valuable information. One of the subjects of their attention is the scientific situation of Iranian society, which they have investigated and criticized with a comparative approach to the scientific situation of Europe. The view of these tourists as external observers in the evaluation of this issue can be beneficial in understanding some aspects of the civilization of Islamic Iran. This article, the aim is to investigate the scientific situation of Iran in the Safavid era through the reports of European travelers, which are based on library studies and descriptive-analytical methods. The question posed in this research is how did the European tourists reflect the scientific situation of the Safavid era Iranian society? The findings of the research have shown that the reports of tourists provide a picture of the scientific situation of Iran in the Safavid era and the attitude of Iranians towards science and knowledge, which includes both the advantages and superiority of the field of knowledge and the weaknesses and its shortcomings and scientific lags have been brought up. They have approached this issue with a comparative and critical view.

The European tourists who came to Iran during the Safavid era, by recording their memories and observations and writing travelogues, introduced and transmitted the culture, science, art, character, behavior, manners and habits, lifestyle and scientific and civilizational heritage of Iranians. They played an important role in European societies and created a kind of, Iranian studies discourse in the West. By traveling and staying in Iran, by observing, investigating and researching, contacting and talking to people and knowledgeable people, and accessing written sources of Iranian history, these tourists have provided useful information about Safavid Iran to their countrymen and made them familiar with the name, prestige and greatness of Iran. The purpose of this research is to investigate the ratio of European tourists with the category of Iranology based on travelogue information and in a descriptive-analytical method, and it raises the question of what role European tourists of the Safavid era played in the development of , Iranian studies? The findings of the research show that various aspects of Iran's civilization were reflected in the travelogues of these tourists and introduced to Europe. From this point of view, tourists have played an important role in the category of Iranian Studies in the West and its expansion. Their reports have been effective in encouraging Europeans to visit Iran and write travelogues, which is an important step in the growth of Iranian studies among Europeans

The formation of political systems has always been linked to the presence and saber-rattling of the military in the field of battle. The capabilities of the military and their spirit of valor in supporting the ruling families established political power in the ruling family and stabilized the political system, and then by neutralizing external threats (enemy attacks) and internal rebellions, they further helped the stabilization and continuity of the political power. At the beginning of the Safavid government, the military played an effective role in both the establishment of the political system and bringing Ismail to power, as well as in the consolidation and continuation of his power and government, and were considered one of the main actors. This research, by posing the question of the role of Qizilbāsh military in the management of wars and the establishment and stabilization of the government of Safavid Shāh Ismāil I (1501-1524), aimed to investigate the role of this tribal force in wars, and in the establishment and consolidation of the rule of the first king of the Safavid dynasty using a descriptive-analytical method. The findings of the research shows that Qizilbāsh forces, with their military advice, effective presence in wars against internal rulers and neighboring powers, and suppression of opposition movements, were one of the main pillars of establishing, stabilizing, and perpetuating Shāh Ismāil I's power.

The rise and fall of various human civilizations has been one of the events that has attracted the attention of many thinkers in the field of history, civilization and sociology. Islamic civilization, which in centuries of history, had a dazzling scientific brilliance; But in the course of his life he experienced a scientific decline, engaging the minds of thinkers and researchers with the question of how and why the cause of its decline. The question that arises is whether any theory or theories have been proposed in the study of the decline of Islamic civilization, apart from the causes and factors that have been argued? The purpose of this article is to present and categorize the theories of degeneration of Islamic civilization through various causes and factors that have been proposed in this regard. The research findings have shown that from the perspectives on why Islamic civilization is declining, theories can be constructed that either look at intra-civilizational factors or look at extra-civilizational factors.

The category of stagnation and decline of Islamic civilization, such as its rise and prosperity and greatness, has been considered by many Muslim and non-Muslim thinkers, and each of them has discussed the causes and factors in the study of this decline. Some have explored these factors intra-structurally; That is, the factors that negatively affected it from within Islamic society; And some have paid attention to extra-structural factors; That is, the events that entered the Islamic civilization from outside and caused its decline. In this article, descriptively-analytically, by asking the question, what factors have considered contemporary Iranian thinkers to affect the decline of Islamic civilization? Has raised the views of some of these thinkers in response to this question.Research findings show that these thinkers did not attribute the decline to Islam; Rather, it has been linked to the various doctrinal, behavioral, and moral deviations that have occurred in Islamic society among rulers and Muslims. External factors have also been considered effective in this decline, which has been due to the favorable internal conditions of Islamic society.

The history of the school "Maktabkhane" in Iran as a place to teach reading or writing goes back to pre-Islamic times. During the Islamic era, learning the Quran and religious principles was also added to the function of the school. Gradually, in different Islamic eras, the school was considered one of the educational institutions where children were taught to read and write, as well as learn the Quran and religious instructions. In the Safavid era, according to the available reports, many schools in the cities of Iran were responsible for the education of children at the elementary level. In this article, the educational system of the Safavid "Maktabkhane” or school has been analyzed in a descriptive-analytical way based on the reports of European travelers and historiographical texts of that era. The findings of the research show that in the Safavid era, there was a kind of school education system for the education of children, which did not have the same organization and internal rules for it. These schools were managed only at the request of the school owners or their founders, outside of government rules and regulations.IntroductionOne of the most important institutions in any society is the institution of education, which is in charge of educating, educating, and training people in society. The background of this institution in Iran goes back to the ancient period and it has been continued in the Islamic period based on Islamic education. In the Safavid era, the educational system was carried out in the form of schools. Schools were responsible for making children and young people literate or teaching them to read and write. The European travel writers who have observed Iranian society during their travels and visits to Iran during the Safavid era have tried to gather information from various angles, they have an almost clear picture of the good and bad of the education system in Iran. At this time, the interest of Iranians from all walks of life and groups was to increase science and knowledge. The Iranian Family cared about children's education in school and continuing their education in higher schools, which were mostly religious fields. Among the topics that tourists paid attention to were the costs and teaching methods in schools and their weaknesses and shortcomings. This article, by posing the question, what image did the European tourists present of the education system of Safavid era Iran at the elementary level (education of children and teenagers.materials and methodsSince the nature of this article is historical and we have to look for the answers to the questions of this article in the travelogue writers' texts, the research method is descriptive-analytical based on library sources. In this article, the education system of the Safavid era schools has been examined based on the reports of European travelers and the historiographical texts of that era, and an attempt has been made to answer the question of what image European travelers have of the education system at the primary level (especially for children and teenagers) in Iran during the Safavid period?Discussion of Results & ConclusionsExamining the reports of European travelers about the social and cultural conditions of Iran during the Safavid era shows that in the educational system of this period, there were schools, "Maktabkhane" in different cities. They were mainly responsible for the education of children. These schools were not state-owned but were established by individuals, and their educational regulations were subject to the wishes and will of the school's founder or owner. The educational program of these schools included the teaching of the Qur'an, the basics of Arabic and Persian, religion and religion, and learning calligraphy and arithmetic. Research showed that the purpose of schools was to prepare children to enter higher education. Therefore, becoming literate to enter into daily life and the ability to do business and to do things related to profession, work, and livelihood were considered among their goals. Also, in these schools, children are taught politeness and correct behavior, and how to respect elders. There were no government rules and regulations for the schools, and the regulations in each city were according to the taste and wishes of the school owner. In addition to schools, families also played a role in the education of children by choosing a teacher at home and taking care of their behavior and education. The government system also intervened in the education of the prince's and nobles' children, and in this way, they applied their views and wishes in the education of these children to achieve the desired goals in the future of the government. In general, the writings of European travelers along with the scattered reports of the official sources of the Safavid period provide a clear picture of the school system in Iran.

The numismatic studies show that the coin is one of the governmental tools for reflecting the attitude of the states and rulers regarding the political, religious and economic issues in the society and in the levels of environmental and international relations. Religious rites inscribed on coinages reflect some sort of ontological worldview and attitude as well as the religious thought of the rulers. In the coins of the Zandiya period (11-64-1209 AH), using the Shiite notions and themes were common. Thus, the question arises as follows: "What was the effect of the political-religious attitude of Zandiya rulers on their approach to inscribing the Shiite rites on the coins of that period?" This study aims at investigating reason and method of inscribing the Shiite rites on coins of Zandiya period in a descriptive-analytical manner. The findings of the study show that under Zandiya, instead of inscribing the worldly titles of the ruler on the coins, the Shiite rites on resorting to God's attributes and respecting the Shiite imams and resorting to them – especially Imam Mahdi – flourished. Besides, the Safawid traditions – including Mahdawiyyat and saviorship were revived. This Shiite tendency from Zandiya was done to legitimize the government by linking their government to Imam Mahdi as the universal savior, and their Safawid-centered policy can be defined with the same view.

Political historiography is one of the general features of the Safavid historiography, which has its main reliance on the political and military events and has paid less attention to the social, economic, cultural and artistic affairs. Despite this dominant approach in the political historiography, with the effective support of the Safavids for art and the interest of some political historians in the art of calligraphy, who were among the court secretaries, scribes and calligraphers, the importance and volume of recorded materials on calligraphy was in the first place compared to other arts. Also, under the influence of the political historiography, Golestan-Honar was written as the first serious historiography in Iranian art, which shows the value and superiority of the calligraphy from the perspective of political developments and the center of the Safavid court over other arts. In this descriptive-analytical research, the historiography of the art of calligraphy is examined in the political historiography of the Safavid era. The findings indicate that the status of the great calligraphers, the history and various items of calligraphy and special attention to Nastaliq pen, the classification of calligraphers and their migrations are reflected in the political historiography of this period.

The rise of Islamic civilization and culture is one of the wonders that has attracted the attention of many thinkers in the field of religion, history, civilization, sociology and political science. Its weakness and decline have also made these thinkers think about the secret of this backwardness and decline. Therefore, each of them has tried to explain the stagnation of Islamic civilization by main and sub-factors. The thinkers of the Islamic world, Iranians, Arabs, Turks, Indians and Pakistanis, etc., with the aim of reviving and reforming and re-developing civilization, have placed this category in their field of thought. In this article, the aim is to study the views of two Muslim thinkers of the Indian subcontinent, Mohammad Iqbal and Abul Hassan Nadwi, on the decline of Islamic civilization in a descriptive-analytical way by asking the question that; What factors have these thinkers paid attention to in explaining the issue? Findings have shown that these thinkers have considered the internal factors of Islamic civilization, including religious, political, social, scientific and moral decline, along with the phenomenon of Western colonialism and its invasion of Islamic societies in the process of degeneration of Islamic culture and civilization.

During the Qajar period, French religious and non-religious institutions gradually entered the Iranian cultural arena, focusing on the education of minorities and the establishment of cultural facilities in the Christian and Jewish regions of Iran. In this process, the city of Sanandaj, the administrative-political center of Ardalan Kurdistan, as one of the centers of the presence of religious minorities, including Assyrians and Chaldeans, was considered by these missionaries and cultural institutions at that time. They were established in this city and were completely different from the current education system of the Qajar period in terms of teaching methods and educational materials. In this descriptive-explanatory historical study, the question of why and how French schools were formed in Sanandaj during the Qajar era will be examined. This article shows that Sanandaj was considered by the French cultural institutions during the Qajar period due to the presence of minorities. Therefore, Lazarist schools, the French Alliance and the Israeli Alliance were formed there. This brought the educational system of religious minorities in Sanandaj to a new stage, and among the various social strata of the city, different reactions were made ranging from acceptance to disgust and pessimism.