جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه « مستشرقان » در نشریات گروه « فلسفه و کلام »

Mahdism is one of the Islamic beliefs that has attracted the attention of Orientalists and Western researchers in the last 150 years. The subject of "Mahdism in Islam" and more specifically "Shia's view of Mahdism" has received almost equal attention from Western researchers and writers. One of the most important damages and destructions that have many effects and consequences in the field of Mahdism is the distortions created by Orientalists. Unfortunately, for various reasons, Orientalists did not have accurate and correct information about Mahdism, and for this reason, many of their opinions are superficial or with many problems; Because the source of many orientalists of this period in this matter is from second-hand sources (such as Darmstetter) or even public hearings (such as Gobineau), which of course are not very reliable. Biasedly or without referring to original sources, they present materials in the name of religion and Mahdism, and after that, some people have dealt scientifically with their materials and articles and considered it a scientific and research work without any flaws. They consider it a flaw and use it in their books and articles. This approach can have consequences, the most important of which is that non-Islamic communities stay away from authentic Islamic content in general and Mahdism in particular, which is the subject of our discussion, and create doubt or hatred among the uninformed believers. Therefore, in this research, we intend to investigate Darmstetter's historical approach in Mahdavi studies using a descriptive-analytical method.

Throughout history, divine prophets have been unfairly subjected to oppositions and accusations. But the type of accusations may have been different for each particular prophet. Prophet Mohammad was no exception to this rule. He was always subject to accusation.These accusations were made by orientalists in dealing with the source of the verses of the Holy Quran so as to challange the revelation of the Holy Quran. For this reason, the accusation of priesthood, witchcraft, poetry, during epilepsy has been attributed only to the Prophet of Islam, Prophet Mohammad (PBUH). Along the same line, this study seeks to answer the questions by examining theories from both scientific and religious data to see wether there is a connection between epilepsy and wise words? Did Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) have a history of illness? To answer the questions, library and citation methods and qualitative content analysis (descriptive-analytical) based on historical approach and psychological science were applied. The findings of the study indicate that based on historical evidence, psychological, intellectual and scientific narrations, the confessions of some orientalists, these suspicions are unfounded and motivated by the studies of orientalists in a biased fashion. Their studies were influenced by the crusade and the fact that Muslims won the war which led to the emergence of a sort of cultural war and people sowing the seeds of doubt and suspicions of that sort.

In the analysis of revelation action and reaction, there are three questions: How and at what stage of revelation have meanings been transformed into words? Was this done directly by God or Gabriel, or did the Prophet also play a role in this process? Was the process of transmission of revelation in the material world or the abstract world? This descriptive-analytical study re-examines the perspective of Traditionalists and Orientalists regarding the revelation action and reaction by using the role of communication patterns while analyzing the quality and manner of revelation communication. It considers the process of revelation to the Prophet in two different levels. In this way, first, the content and meanings were revealed by God (with or without the mediation of Gabriel) to the Prophet's heart, and then these meanings (Qul Thaqeel) were transformed into words that could be understood and received by the people with the supervision and help of Gabriel. IntroductionAmong the issues disputed by Muslim theorists and Orientalists regarding revelation is the way of revelation communication between God and the Prophet (PBUH), the transmission of Quranic verses to people, and the role of the Prophet (PBUH) in this connection. Throughout history, Muslim scholars and Orientalists have expressed different opinions about the quality of this relationship. Muslim traditionalists and a group of orientalists such as Lyman and Izutsu believe that in the process of revelation, both the word and the meaning were revealed by God to the Prophet with or without the mediation of Gabriel. Another group of Orientalists, such as Bell and Macquarie, believe that only the content of the revelation was transmitted to the Prophet, and then he himself put these concepts into words. The third group of Orientalists believe that both the concepts and words of revelations are from the Prophet himself. In this view, the role of the Prophet's action is very important, because he understood some concepts with experience, discovery, and intuition and then put them into words. This research, while examining different theories regarding the dialectic of revelation, using the role of communication patterns, examines the nature and extent of the Prophet's action and reaction regarding the subject of revelation. After drawing a communication model suitable for each of the theories, this research presents a new model using verses; a model that describes the role of the Prophet (PBUH) separately in the stage of receiving and transmission. Materials and MethodsThis research analyzes the quality and manner of revelation communication in a descriptive, critical, and analytical manner, using the role of communication patterns. In the communication model used in the research, the four elements of the sender, receiver, communication channel, and codes (communication codes) are considered as the main elements. The sender and receiver are two general concepts related to each other, which can be used in four different ways: coder and code reader, addresser and addressee, sender and receiver device (technical device or even human), and writer and reader (when the message is written). Communication codes are also a set or system of rules for communication between signs (signs of communication) and meanings. Also, every linguistic communication takes place through a special channel, which is the conduit for message transmission.Since revelation is also a linguistic communication, it has patterns in which communicative components can be found. The important point in examining the revelation relationship between God and the Prophet (the vertical level of revelation) is that revelation, in addition to the sender and receiver, has a different communication channel and type of communication code, and it cannot be material. On the other hand, revelation in this state is alive and oral. In this connection, the sender is God and the revelatory action takes place at His will. The recipient of revelation is the Prophet (PBUH). The communication channel is a special and unnatural channel (discounting the heart or tongue). In addition to these three elements, the codes that include the message itself and its context are also one of the pillars of revelation communication. Examining these elements in the theories proposed regarding the revelation dialectic helps us to achieve the correct pattern expressed by each theory. In this research, based on the opinion of Muslim traditionalists and orientalists, the four elements of communication patterns in three theories of orthographic revelation, content revelation, and intuitive revelation have been examined and finally, the research theory has been presented. Discussion and Funding By examining the verses related to the subject of revelation, it becomes clear that the types of communication codes in the subject of revelation in the verses of the Qur'an are expressed differently. Sometimes these codes are of words and language (Naml: 6; Shouri: 51); sometimes they convey a difficult and heavy meaning (Qul Thaqeel) (Muzmal: 5). Also, three different transmission channels for this communication have been mentioned in the Quran, which include the heart, tongue, and ear. By using these points, one can assume that the revelation to the Prophet occurred on two levels. In this way, at the first level, the content and concepts of the revelation were revealed by God (through or without Gabriel) to the Prophet's heart. At this level, the channel of transmission of revelation is the heart, and the type of communication codes is something beyond words because words are not transmitted in the abstract world. On the other hand, the heart, which is described in verses of the Qur'an as the channel of transmission of revelation, is not suitable for receiving vocabulary and language. In the second level of revelation, the meanings and concepts revealed to the Prophet's heart, which according to the Qur'an are heavy words, are transformed into words that can be understood and accepted by the people with the supervision and help of Gabriel. At this level, based on the verses of the Quran, the channel of revelation is the ear and the tongue, and the types of communication codes are those words that can be understood and learned by humans, and therefore, they are guidance for people. Conclusion and Results Referring to the Qur’anic verses, there are three communication channels for the transmission of a revelation: heart, ear, and tongue. Each of these channels can have its own communication codes. The codes of the ear and language channels are material and of the word and language and belong to the material world. On the other hand, the codes of the heart channel are non-material and belong to the world of matter. In other words, the whole process of revelation communication in the Qur'an is done at two different levels and in a non-linear way. At the initial level, immaterial communication is established in the abstract world between God and the Prophet (PBUH) where non-verbal messages (content) are transferred to the Prophet's heart through the channel of the heart (sometimes with Gabriel's mediation and sometimes without mediation). At the second level of revelation communication, these meanings and contents are transformed into words. The transmission is done in the material world by the Prophet (PBUH) with the help and direct supervision of Gabriel in transforming meanings (Qul Thaqeel) into words (Qul Yasir) so that words can be transmitted to the general public. This level of revelation is light and guidance for all people.

Violence against and intolerance of followers of other religions or disregard for ideological and religious pluralism is one of the accusations made by a large number of Orientalists against the Qur'an, the Prophet of Islam (PBUH) and Muslims throughout history. The emergence of these accusations in the minds of Orientalists mainly stems from issues such as jihad and the Prophet's treatment of his opponents in Medina and the three Jewish tribes of the Bani Qinqa, the Bani Al-Nadhir and the Bani Al-Qurayzah and the Jews of Khyber and Fadak and especially the Prophet's confrontation with the Jews of Bani Qurayzah after his prophetic mission. Some orientalists have qualified these wars in which the Holy Prophet (PBUH) was involved with worldly desires such as colonization and political, social, cultural and economic domination. In fact, a lot of Islamologists, in their definition of the concept of jihad, have considered it as devoid of divine motives and in this way made it difficult for non-Muslims to understand. They have evaluated the verses of the Qur'an and the behavior of the Prophet (PBUH) contradictory and without rational thought. They are of the view that contradictions which are due to the difference in behavior at times of weakness compared with times of strength are the root cause of the spread of violence. The accusations made by the Orientalists are not in line with the philosophy of the prophetic missions of the divine prophets because the prophets’ mission is to determine human rights and establish justice, equality and lasting peace among people. The basic principle of Islam is to respect the rights of all human beings and to communicate with all based on peace and peaceful life. Jihad has always been defensive in Islam and all the wars in which the Prophet (PBUH) was involved in the early days of Islam were fought to defend the territorial lands of Islam and to protect Muslims. The study of the legislative course of jihad in Islam shows the Prophet’s logical stance regarding the interaction or confrontation of Jews and Christians with Islam and Muslims. What is certain is that at the beginning of his arrival in Medina, the Messenger of God signed a covenant of peaceful concord with the Jewish tribes living in Medina, respecting their material and spiritual rights, and asking them to refrain from cooperating with the enemies of the Muslims, but unfortunately all the three aforementioned tribes broke their promise. The Jews broke the treaty one after another and betrayed Muslims, so the expulsion of the two Jewish tribes of the Bani Qinqa and the Bani Nadir from Medina was a measure commensurate with their betrayal. The accusations of some sources on the history of Islam and some Orientalists regarding the Bani Qurayzah and the massacre of the male slaves and accusing the Holy Prophet of extreme violence is consistent with the Torah selected by the Jews regarding violators. However, they are not consistent with the clear stance of the Holy Prophet and Ali (PBUT) and the content of verse 26 of Surah Al-Ahzab about the story of the Bani Qurayzah.

According to orientalists, historical researches of Marshall Hodgson, who was a researcher focusing on Islam and history in mid of 1900s, has caused a new approach and method in historical studies of orientalists. The entry of “Qulat” (extremists) is one out of twenty entries that have been written by his handwriting in the Encyclopedia of Islam in volume of about one page (two columns). Since one of the basic premises in historical topics is to understand the various groups correctly, their thoughts and practices must be taught correctly. Reviewing the entry of Qulat indicates that incorrect information regarding this group has been recorded and it faces various criticisms. From those is the critic on categorizing sects of Shia, relating the starting point of Mahdiism to the Qulat, believing in realm of mending (Zar) in beliefs of the Qulat, and etc. It seems like all of these problems are caused by the writer not referring to the Arabic sources.

Religious studies in recent centuries, especially in Western academia, have tended to apply methods of humanities and experimental sciences. The sociological approach is one of the methods used in the study of religions. The initial understanding of this concept is their application in the study of anthropology and Islamic societies; But Westerners have used these methods beyond the societies in the study of religious texts. Shiite hadith has been the subject of Oriental studies after 1950. These scholars have studied the sources of Shiite hadith, its history and compellation. Among the studies related to sociological methods application anthropology theories, sociology of knowledge and phenomenology are recognizable. This article intends to examine the works that have studied the Shiite hadith in this way. The approach of the article in studying these works is descriptive-analytical.

The Islamic Revolution of Iran is the most important contemporary Islamic movement that has been a source of interest to western thinkers because it is beyond them to accept the idea that clerics and religion can play a key role in a revolution and conduct a revolution which has a world –wide reputation. Therefore, there has been a considerable amount of inquiry among orientalists regarding the various aspects of the Islamic Revolution of Iran during the last four decades. One of the most important studies which attracted orientalists' attention is the role of spiritual guidance which Shiite Islam and clerics' have in staging the Islamic Revolution of Iran, and they have offered differing views on these issue. Using a descriptive – analytical method, this study seeks to evaluate the views presented in this regard. The scientific findings of this study show that the main reason for orientalists' misjudgments of this issue is first their lack of proper understanding of the historical developments of the Iranian Revolution, and secondly their lack of knowledge of the ideological nature of Islam.

The present article explores the important question with Orientalists about Shi'a and Ahlul-Bayt (AS), what is the oriental view of the virtues of the Ahlul Bayt (as) and what are the implications of their opinions? After explaining and analyzing various Orientalists' views, the author believes that they did not have the same motives and positions in this regard. Among the three general admirable, fair, and biased views of the Ahlul Bayt of infallibility and purity (AS) The goals of colonialism, Islamophobia and Islamophobia, and on the other hand, their lack of mastery and full familiarity with authentic religious texts and the rich and rich history of the Shi'a school, more than any other issue. Therefore, considering that the reputation of the Shiite Imams has never been limited to the Muslim religious space, the author of the article, using the limited resources available, intends to present, in spite of the shortcomings and shortcomings of the Oriental writings in this field, the introduction of each What more is Lebanon Mohammadi (PBUH) and the Universal School of the Ahl al-Bayt (AS).It is worth noting that the research method in this research is library and analytical descriptive.

The Islamic Revolution of Iran is the most important contemporary Islamic movement and a manifestation of Islamism in the present era. This movement has been evaluated by different streams and individuals from variety of perspectives. The most important and widespread discussions in this area has been done by Orientalists and Western writers, who recently have been focused on the role of scholars and clerics in forming the revolution. This research aims to elucidate the Orientalist view about the streams of clerics and their role in the victory of the Islamic Revolution. This descriptive-analytic study seeks to show that the major analysis of Orientalists have either influenced by lords of the church and presumptions and secular views. Therefore, this analysis is not compatible with Islamic principles. Secondly, historic evidences indicate that actions of scholars and authorities towards the Pahlavi regime were contrary to Orientalist viewpoint.

The current study answers to the question that; what is the Orientals` analysis about the role of Shiite clergy in the formation of the Islamic revolution? First, based on the hypothesis of this paper, Orientals’ major analysis that is influenced by comparison with the Lord of the church, is based on east-knowing assumptions and secular view. Given this fact, the above analysis is not compatible with Islamic principles. Second, this view claims that clergy`s marital and political motives led to the revolution in Iran, while the truth is contrary. The fact remains that this study tries to have a criticizing confrontation by misinterpretations and the impact of published views on behalf of the orientalists in scientific circles.

One of the Orientalist claims against the teaching of Mahdawiyyah is that it is influenced by the belief in Soshyant, the Iranian Zoroastrian Redeemer. The origin of this claim can be found in the existence of belief in redeemer in the Iranian Zoroastrian sources and their alignment in many details. By the terminology of the word Soshyant and examination of its usage in Zoroastrian sources, the present article firstly rejects this claim and then, based on the study of the sources of the Zoroastrian writings, the examination of their authenticity and offering some evidences that show the impressionability of Zoroastrian sources by the Islamic teachings in the years after the Islamic conquest of Iran and the complete control of Islam on this country, it emphasizes the possibility of the claim contrary.

There are two groups of reports about the first revealed down revelation on the Prophet (p.b.u.h.). The first group introduces the Hara cave as the place of the descent of the first revealed down revelation, and the second group introduce the region of Abtah. By studying the document, text and the theological and historical consequences of the famous report which regard the Hera cave as the place of the descent of the first revelation, and by showing how some Orientalists on the basis of this report tried to prove that Islam is barrowed from Christianity and its teachings are not authentic, the present essay tried to express another report which has been narrated in the Shii sources and considers Abtah as the place of the descent of the first revelation. In addition to strength of the document, this report does not have the undesirable consequences of the first one.

Wilfred Madelung is one of the most prominent and influential specialists in the field of Shi‘a studies in contemporary world. Contrary to the most works of western specialists in the field of Islam and Shiism, his works are greatly successful in knowing and defining different aspects of Islam, such that they are welcomed and accepted even in Islamic and Shia societies. It seems that a considerable portion of this success is due to his attention to methodological points. His works related to Shia studies have particular merits or research features in comparison to the works of other western specialists in Shia studies, the most important of which are as follows: taking into consideration authentic and valid Islamic and Shiite sources, thematic and methodological differentiation of sources, taking into consideration the atmosphere and history of events and teachings, understanding the teachings along the line of a thinking system, a relatively complete mastery over different dimensions of Islam, exact knowledge of scientists and their valid works and mastery over Arabic language with which Madelung could attract the attention and even admiration of Muslims and Shias to his works. The observance of aforementioned points by Madelung has made scholars to differentiate him from ignorant and biased Orientalists and include him among just researchers. The present paper examines the methods and sources as well as research methods used by Madelung to introduce Shiism to western societies and tries to show the distinctiveness and superiority of his works by comparing them with the works of some other western specialists in Shia studies.

In the history of Islam there were controversial events in era and career of Imam Hassan. These events have been variously understood from different angles. One of theses interpretations is that of orientalists. Donalson an English orientalist attempts an analysis of Imam Hassan’ life in his Shiite Creed. He attacked Imam Hassan for his numerous marriages and peace with Muawiya, accusin him of having low level of morality, courage, self-control and intellectual capacity. The methodic study of his life shows however that Imam Hassan’s stance towards Muawiya was originally uncompromising and he was compelled to be in peace with Muawiya. Reports on his marriages and frequent divorces are open not only to serious doubts in terms of authenticity and chain of authority but subject to objections in content as well.

In the present article, through a discussion on the different models of humanistic explanations of revelation which are specifically referred to in the Orientalists’ works, seven models are presented. The author tries to show that the common origin in all these explanations is a kind of negative approach in theology in the new era. According to this approach, God is a transcendental being beyond man and the world with no interference in history and nature. With this explanation, revelation which is a special kind of relationship between man and God would receive a humanistic justification instead of a divine one. The article also examines the relationship between negative theology and humanistic explanations of revelation with reference to verses from the holy Quran. Then the major argument of the article which is the relationship between humanistic explanations of revelation and a special kind of negative theology in the new era is presented and finally it is shown that the moderation between anthropomorphism and deanthropomorphism (purification) in Islamic knowledge reach at no such conclusions.

At the advent of Islam, the people of Jazirat-al-Arab were acquainted with different religions like Jwism, Christianity, Haneef and Idolatry. In this concern, some questions may be raised:1.Whether Haneef has used to be a common world wide religion or not?2.Which religion did the Holy Prophet (S.A.A.S) use to follow before the arrival of Islam? If Christianity used to be the universal religion before the advent of Islam, was the Holy Prophet one of it's followers?Religion the importance and position of Haneef Religion, and the related unanswered questions; the present survey struggles to figure out the true nature of Haneef and to answer the questions through researching into the literal and idiomatic meaning of Haneef existing in different verses, narrations and other historical