فهرست مطالب گلناز تاسلی

The transition period between late pregnancy and early lactation (also called the periparturient period) certainly is the most interesting stage of the lactation cycle and is the last 3 weeks before parturition to 3 weeks after parturition. Most infectious diseases and metabolic disorders occur during this period. Milk fever, ketosis, retained fetal membranes, metritis, and displaced abomasum primarily impact cows during the periparturient period (Drackley, 1999). Any nutritional limitation during this period has an important impact on cow efficiency and consequently, milk production decreases. Dairy cows encounter substantial metabolic and physiological adaptations during the transition period. The immune system during the periparturient period is impaired. At this time, the most important factor causing immune-suppression in highly productive cows is metabolic stress resulting from hormonal and metabolic fluctuations, a negative energy balance, shortage of proteins, minerals and vitamins which are required to meet the demands of the fetus as well as the onset of lactation (Sordillo, 2016). In the world, Cu deficiency is one of the most common problems in cattle with clinical and subclinical signs (Hill and Shannon, 2019). Even marginal Cu deficiency (6 to 7 ppm dietary Cu) depresses blood neutrophil function in dairy cattle (Torre et al., 1996). One strategy for improving immune system of transition dairy cows is mineral and vitamin supplementation. It has been reported that many minerals are enzymatic cofactors (Filappi et al., 2005). Studies showed that minerals injection would be a suitable method to improve mineral utilization, and this may be a promising alternative to improve animal performance (Collet et al., 2017). Furthermore, during this period, dairy cows need antioxidants to combat reactive oxygen species (ROS) which produce during oxidative stress. Vitamin C was identified as antioxidant and could help immune system to overcome ROS production. Hence, this experiment was aimed to study the effect of vitamin C and copper injection on the health status of transition dairy cows.

The study was carried out in a commercial farm located in Kermanshah province of Iran. Cows were enrolled from June 22, until September 22. Temperature and humidity index (THI) was calculated. It was between 72-78. The experiment was performed with 40 multiparous (twenty; second parity and twenty; third and fourth parity) Holstein lactating dairy cows which divided into four groups (10 animals/ group) in a 2×2 factorial arrangement. All cows were offered a TMR diet. Experimental treatments consisted of control (injection of 7 ml of NaCl % 0.9), Cu (injection of 75 mg Cu per cow) Vitamin C (injection of 25 mg vitamin C solution/kg BW), and Vitamin C-Cu (simultaneous injection of 25 mg vitamin C solution/kg BW and 75 mg Cu/ cow). Solutions were injected on d 20 and 40 days before expected parturition, parturition day and day 20 of postpartum. Serum concentrations of total protein, glucose, triglycerides, cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, Ca, P and Mg were determined using autoanalyzer by Pars Azmoon Kits. Serum concentrations of Beta hydroxybutyrate (BHBA) and non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) were measured using autoanalyzer by Randow Kits. Serum concentration of Cu was determined by atomic absorbtion. Serum concentrations of vitamin C and superoxide dismutase was measured by Elisa reader. Incidence of metabolic disorders and infection disease were recorded. Data of serum variables were analyzed based on a randomized block design with a 2×2 (Vitamin C and Cu, with or without injection) factorial arrangement using Proc Mix of SAS software. The differences among treatments were evaluated using Tukey adjustment when the overall F-test was P ≤ 0.05. Trends were declared when 0.05 < P < 0.10. In addition, percentages of metabolic disorders were reported.

Results showed that the interaction effect of vitamin C and Cu had no significant effect on serum concentration of vitamin C and superoxide dismutase activity. Cows received vitamin C had the greatest serum vitamin C concentration on d 20 prepartum, parturition day, d 10, 20 and 30 postpartum (P<0.05). Content of serum Cu were affected by the interaction of vitamin C and Cu on d 10 and d 20 postpartum (P<0.05). Copper injection increased serum Cu concentration and superoxide dismutase activity on d 20 prepartum, parturition day, d 10, 20 and 30 postpartum (P<0.05) in cows received Cu without vitamin C. Serum concentrations of P, Mg, glucose, BHBA, NEFA, triglycerides and HDL-cholesterol were not influenced by the interaction effect of vitamin C and Cu. Serum triglyceride concentration tended to decrease (P=0.06) in cows received vitamin C and on parturition day. Copper injection tended to increase (P=0.06) serum triglyceride concentration on d 20 postpartum. Serum protein concentration tended to decrease (P=0.07) in cows received vitamin C and in compared to other treatments on parturition day. Copper or vitamin C injections had no effect on serum concentrations of Ca, P, Mg, glucose, BHB and NEFA of experimental cows. Serum calcium concentration tended to increase (P=0.07) in cows received simultaneous injection of vitamin C and Cu in compared to the others on parturition day. Simultaneous injection of vitamin C and Cu tended to increase total cholesterol concentration (P=0.06) on d 10 and 30 of postpartum. Copper injection tended to increase total cholesterol concentration on d 20 prepartum, parturition day and d 10 postpartum (P=0.06). Control groups had the highest incidence rate of retained placenta and clinical mastitis.

It is concluded that vitamin C and Cu injection reduced incidence rate of retained placenta and clinical mastitis due to improving immunity system performance of transition dairy cows.

Seasonal breeding mammals are sensitive to changes in day length. Thus, in small ruminants from temperate and subtropical latitudes, photoperiod is the main environmental factor that modulates their pattern of reproductive activity (Duarte et al., 2010). However, natural oscillations in the photoperiod or alterations by artificial photoperiod can lead to changes in milk production in ruminants with seasonal and non seasonal reproduction (Dahl et al., 2000). Exposure to artificially shortened photoperiods during the dry period increased their milk yields in the subsequent lactation (Auchtung et al., 2005; Mabjeesh et al., 2007). In the 12 wk of subsequent lactation, greater milk yields have been reported for does that received artificial short days during the dry period than those that received long days (Mabjeesh et al., 2007). Many livestock breeders in cold regions keep their animals in closed places in late autumn and during winter. In the closed position, the amount and intensity of light can be controlled. Short day length at the end of the pregnancy period is associated with increased milk production in lactating animals, but there is no information in this field for native goats in the country. Therefore, the aim of this research was to investigate the effect of reducing the length of the lighting period in late pregnancy on milk production and related hormones in black goats native to Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province.

The work was conducted in the Farsan city (50º and 35' minutes of longitude and 32º and 16' of latitude and 2020 meters above sea level) located in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari provinces. 40 indigenous black goats were randomly assigned to one of the following two treatments. Treatment 1: control; Female goats that were exposed to natural day length during pregnancy (20 heads). Treatment 2: Female goats that were exposed to short day length (8 hours of light and 16 hours of darkness) during the last 45 days of pregnancy (20 head). The female goats of two different treatments were reared in two separate locations of the same size with the same environmental and management conditions during the late pregnancy period (experimental period). The quantity and quality of feed was similar for both groups. After giving birth, all female goats were exposed to natural day length. Hand milking was done at one week intervals from one week to one month after birth. Blood samples were taken from jugular vein at the beginning of the experiment, 20 days before parturition, at the time of parturition, 15 and 30 days after parturition.

In the first week, milk production in the experimental treatment was 11% more than the control treatment, but in the second, third and fourth weeks, this superiority reached 13, 16 and 21%, respectively. On average, milk production in the experimental treatment was 15% more than the control treatment. In dairy goats, it was reported that milk production in the subsequent lactation period was 26% higher in goats that were exposed to short day length conditions in the last third of their pregnancy than goats that were exposed to long day conditions at the same time (Mabjeesh et al., 2007).The interaction between the treatment and the milk measurement time was not statistically significant. Milk production peaked in the third week in the control group and in the fourth week in the experimental treatment. Changing the duration of lighting at the end of pregnancy did not have a significant effect on any of the milk compounds on the seventh, fourteenth, twenty-first and twenty-eighth days of lactation. Normally, the composition of milk is not affected by photoperiod (Mabjeesh et al., 2007).The amount of prolactin hormone in the control treatment 20 days before delivery was higher than the amount of prolactin hormone in the experimental treatment at the same time (p<0.05). It has been found that short day length reduces the secretion of prolactin (Smith 1998). In both treatments, the amount of prolactin hormone increased from 45 days before delivery to 30 days after delivery. At the time of parturition, the amount of prolactin hormone in female goats of both treatments was similar. Within each treatment, the amount of prolactin hormone in female goats 15 days after giving birth was higher than its value at the time of giving birth, and the amount of prolactin hormone at the time of giving birth was higher than its value at 20 days before giving birth, and these differences were statistically significant (p<0.01). However, within each treatment, the difference in the amount of prolactin hormone in female goats between the 30th and 15th days after birth was not significant. The interaction effect of treatment and prolactin measurement time was statistically significant (p<0.05). Within each treatment, the amount of prolactin hormone in female goats 15 days after giving birth was higher than its amount at the time of giving birth, and the amount of prolactin hormone at the time of giving birth was higher than its value at 20 days before giving birth, and this difference were statistically significant (p<0.01). However, within each treatment, the difference in the amount of prolactin hormone in female goats between the 30th and 15th days after birth was not significant. The interaction effect of treatment and prolactin measurement time was statistically significant (p<0.05). The average melatonin hormone before and during delivery in treatment 2 was higher than the control treatment (p<0.01), but after delivery the difference between the two treatments was not significant. The amount of IGF 1 hormone in female goats of both treatments decreased from 45 days before calving to the time of calving and then increased.The amount of IGF-1 hormone in the experimental treatment was higher than the control treatment in 20 days before delivery (p<0.01) and at the time of delivery (p<0.05).

As a result, reducing the length of the lighting period at the end of pregnancy increases the milk production of native black goats in the subsequent lactation period.

The profitability of livestock production depends to a great extent on the cost of feeding animals, which is often the principal production cost. The animal feed production industry consumes large quantities of imported raw materials, including cereals and oilseed cake. This high dependence on imports, fluctuating prices and a lack of standardization concerning the composition of the raw materials, are constraints for the industry, which is keen to find a solution. In the last years the valorisation of agricultural co-products is receiving more attention, co-products contain valuable substances; they are good sources of dietary fiber. Many agricultural co-products are rich in dietary fibers. Ruminants could extract nutritional components through symbiotic relationships with microorganisms, including bacteria and protozoa, present in their digestive apparatus. The main benefit of these microorganisms is their ability to convert different vegetable materials rich in fiber, and with no use in human food, into products of high biological value such as milk and meat.Most parts of Iran have arid and semi-arid climate, and there is feed shortage for livestock during the year. Use of agro-industrial co-products in animal diet is an alternative way to overcome feed shortage. Agro-industrial co-products, can be effectively consumed by ruminant species. One of the agro-industrial co-products are medicinal plant residue. These distilled leaves and residues do not have a specific commercial use and could be included in livestock diet. This experiment was aimed to study the in vitro rumen fermentation kinetic of rose flower distillation residues and fumaria distillation residues and experimental diets containing different levels of rose flower distillation residues or fumaria distillation residues.

Fresh rose flower distillation residues and fumaria distillation residues were collected from an agro industry processing factory (Gareh Ban, Harsin, Kermanshah province). Chemical compositions (dry matter, neutral detergent fiber, acid detergent fiber, crude protein and ash), in vitro gas production parameters, total protozoa population and N-ammonia concentration of rose flower distillation residues and fumaria distillation residues were measured. Each pulp separately included at three levels (10, 20 and 30 % of DM) in a basal diet. Experimental diets were:1- Basal diet, 2- basal diet containing 10% of rose flower distillation residues, 3- basal diet containing 20% of rose flower distillation residues, 4- basal diet containing 30% of rose flower distillation residues, 5- basal diet containing 10% of fumaria distillation residues, 6- basal diet containing 20% of fumaria distillation residues and 7- basal diet containing 30% of fumaria distillation residues. Basal diet formulated for ewes and contained 12.5 % CP and 2.20 Mcal metabolisable energy (ME) /Kg of diet. In vitro gas production parameters, total protozoa population and N-ammonia concentration of diets were measured and metabolizable energy (ME), short chain fatty acids (SCFA) and organic matter digestibility (OMD) were estimated. For in-vitro gas production, rumen fluid was taken from two rumen fistulated Kordish rams. For measuring gas production, 200 mg of experimental diets were incubated with 40 ml of buffered-rumen fluid for 120 hours. The cumulative produced gas was recorded at different times of incubation and gas production parameters were fitted with Blummel et al. equation (2003). Organic matter digestibility (OMD) was estimated after 24 hours of incubation (Menke and Steingass 1988). N-ammonia concentration was measured based on the method of Broderickand Kang et al. (1980). Rumen protozoa were identified according to the method of Dehority et al. (2003). After 24 h incubation, 5 ml of buffered rumen fluid was pipetted into a screw-capped test tube containing 5 ml of formalin. Thereafter, two drops of brilliant green dye (2 g brilliant green and 2 ml glacial acetic diluted to 100 ml with distilled water) were added to the test tube, mixed thoroughly, and allowed to stand overnight at room temperature. Total and differential counts of protozoa were made with five replications. In-vitro rumen concentration of volatile fatty acids (VFA) was measured by gas chromatography (Ottenstein and Bartley 1971). All in-vitro gas production trials were carried out in three runs. Protozoa population, ammonia-N, SCFA, ME and OMD data were analyzed based on a completely randomized design and gas production data was analyzed based on a complete randomized block design using Proc GLM of SAS software. The differences among treatments were evaluated using Tukey adjustment when the overall F-test was P ≤ 0.05. In addition, independent comparisons were done for diets containing rose flower distillation residues vs. diets containing fumaria distillation residues.

The results showed that rose flower distillation residues contains 130.6, 425.5 and 308.5 g/kg of CP, NDF and ADF respectively and fumaria distillation residues contains 143.4, 473.7 and 347.4 g/kg of CP, NDF and ADF respectively. Gas production, ammonia-N and total protozoa population were not different between rose flower distillation residues and fumaria distillation residues, but rose flower distillation residues had greater gas production rate than fumaria distillation residues (0.057 vs 0.047 %/h, P<0.01). Diet inclusion of rose flower distillation residues or fumaria distillation residues increased gas production in compare to basal diet (P<0.01). Diet containing 30 % of rose flower distillation residues had the highest gas production (90.05 ml/200 mg DM), gas production rate (0.034 %/h), OMD (58.38%), SCFA (1.07 mmol/200 mg DM) and ME (9.47 MJ/kg DM) (P<0.01). Basal diet had the highest ammonia-N concentration (16.77 mg/dl, P<0.01) among experimental diets.

Considering the obtained data regarding the chemical compositions and gas production parameters, it is concluded that rose flower distillation residues and fumaria distillation residues could be used as a part of forage portion in ruminant nutrition.

This experiment was aimed to study the effect of mixture of garlic oil and sunflower oil in diet containing equal ratio of concentrate to forage. The mixture of garlic oil and sunflower oil was added at 2% of diet DM. Gas production parameters, pH, N-ammonia and total protozoa population were measured and metabolizable energy (ME), short -chain fatty acid (SCFA) and organic matter digestibility (OMD) was estimated. The results showed that the mixture of garlic oil and sunflower oil increased gas production (128.64 vs 108.51 mL, P<0.05) but had no significant effect on gas production rate, half-life and lag phase. The addition of the mixture of garlic oil and sunflower oil to diet, increased OMD, SCFA and ME in compare to the control diet (P<0.05). The concentration of Ammonia-N, pH, total protozoa population, Entodinium, Diplodinium and Ophryoscolex population did not affected by the inclusion of the oil mixture. It is concluded that the addition of a mixture of garlic oil and sunflower oil not only had no negative effect on rumen fermentation but also, improved some of the fermentation parameters.

The aim of this study was to determine the attractiveness of plants using by honey bee in the rangeland of Aliabad Mousiri, Koohrang, Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province. For this purpose, plant species were collected during the growing season at a distance of 1500 meters from the location of bee keeping point in rangeland. The attractiveness of the plants used by bees, considering three criteria; Time, number of bees and distance and relying on indigenous knowledge and experience of beekeepers were determined. According to the results, species with attractiveness for bees include between 60 and 65% of plant composition, which plants with excellent, good, medium and low attractive plants respectively, constitute11.79, 44.94, 4.49 and 38.76, of the share of species in plant composition. The flowering period of most of the plants used by bees in the rangelands of the region is from the beginning of June to the end of August. Also 29 species producing nectar(16.29%), 40 species producing pollen (22.47%) and 110 species producing nectar and pollen(61.79%) were identified. The results can be used to determine the suitability of rangeland habitats in terms of beekeeping in multi-purpose rangeland designs.

Mature milk is the most complete feed for weaning calf, but use of liquid feeds such as milk replacers, transition milk (TM) and waste milk results in maximum benefit due to their lower cost. This experiment was aimed to study the effect of extended transition milk feeding on nutrients intake, feeding behavior and rumination pattern of f Holstein dairy calves.

Calves were enrolled in the study in chronological order according to their birth date. During 21 consecutive days, calves were enrolled in the individual pens (4 calves daily; one calf per treatment per day) progressively as born. A total of 84 healthy newborn female Holstein calves (3days of age; BW = 35.8 ± 0.56 kg) were randomly allocated to four experimental groups. Four groups included:1- TM0, daily pooled 6 l pasteurized waste milk , 2- TM0.5, a daily mixture of 5.5 l pooled pasteurized waste milk with 0.5 l pooled pasteurized TM, 3- TM1, a daily mixture of pooled pasteurized waste milk with 1 l pooled pasteurized TM, and 4- TM2, a daily mixture of 4 l pooled pasteurized waste milk with 2 l pooled pasteurized TM. Treatments were applied for a 21-day period and all calves were then fed individually with 6 l/day pooled pasteurized waste milk till day 60. Individual daily feed intake, particle size intake of starter diet, sorting index and feeding behavior were determined.

The results showed that the interaction of period and level of TM and level of MT had no effect on starter nutrients intake. However, intake of dry matter, crude protein, neutral detergent fiber, non -fibrous carbohydrates and ether extract were higher in post weaning period that pre weaning period for all of experimental groups. Feed sorting index data showed that calves selected for feed particle with 2.36 mm and calved fed TM0 had the highest sorting value for particle size 2.36 mm. Particle size intake of starter diet nutrients were not different among experimental groups. The interaction of period and level of TM had no significant effect on feeding behavior and meal pattern. However, meal interval was affected by the interaction of period and level of TM, so that calves received 1 L TM had the greatest meal interval. Furthermore, calves received 2 L TM had the highest eating time.

The results showed that mature milk could be replaced by TM in dairy calf nutrition without any negative effect on dry matter intake and feeding behavior.

This study was performed to evaluate the effect of body condition score (BCS) during dry period and calving season on the incidence of metabolic disorders in Holstein cows in Isfahan province.  About 5138 birth records were extracted from different births since 1395. Data included animal number, year of calving, month of calving, length of dry period, length of gestation period, calf birth weight, calf sex, number of calves born per calving, retained placenta, dystocia, stillbirth and metritis. Data were classified into different classes, for uniformity and were analyzed by SAS software using GLIMMIX procedure. The results showed that effect of BCS changes on the incidence of metabolic disorders (retained placenta, dystocia, stillbirth and metritis) was not significant (P>0.05). The effect of parity on retained placenta, dystocia, stillbirth and metritis was significant (P<0.01). Calf birth weight had significant effect on retained placenta (birth weight less than 35 kg and more than 46 Kg), dystocia and stillbirth (calves with birth weight 46 kg) and metritis (P<0.01). Effect of dry period on the incidence of retained placenta (dry period: less than 45 days, 61-100 days and 46-60 days) and dystocia (increasing dry period from 61to 100 days) and metritis (dry period: less than 45 days, 61-100 days and 46-60 days) was significant (P<0.01). The effect of gestation length on the incidence of retained placenta was significant (P<0.01) but had no significant effect on the stillbirth (P>0.05). The effect of calving season on the incidence of retained placenta and metritis was significant (P<0.01).

This experiment was aimed to study the effect of bacterial inoculant on some in vitro fermentation parameters and quality characteristics of barley silage. Prosage bacterial inoculant (a mixture of Lactobacillus buchneri, Lactobacillus plantarum, Enterococcus faecium and Propionibacterium acidophilus) was added at three (0, 5, and 10 mg/kg of silage dry matter) levels to barley silages. Silage quality traits including dry matter (DM), pH and buffering capacity were measured and fleig point was calculated. In vitro gas production potential, gas production rate and lag time were measured. Furthermore, total protozoa population and N-ammonia concentration of experimental silages were measured and metabolizable energy, short chain fatty acids and organic matter digestibility were estimated. Results showed that buffering capacity, fleig point and pH of experimental silages were not affected by bacterial inoculant (P>0.05), however, barley silage containing 5 mg bacterial inoculant had greater dry matter content (30.24 vs 28.07 and 28.67 %, P<0.05) compared with the control and silage containing 10 mg of bacterial inoculant. Furthermore, bacterial additive had no effect on gas production parameters and total protozoa population, N-ammonia concentration, estimated metabolizable energy, short chain fatty acids and in vitro organic matter digestibility (P>0.05). Based on the current experiment, use of bacterial additive for the preparation of barley silage is not recommended due to its costs.

Plants produce an enormous array of phytochemicals arising from various biosynthetic pathways. More than 200,000 defined structures of phytochemicals have been recognized. The growing concerns over bacterial resistance to antibiotics and chemical residues in animal derived foods have led to use phytochemicals as alternatives to antibiotics, other chemotherapeutic agents, and chemical and growth promoting antibiotic feed additives. Phytochemicals exhibit antibacterial, antiviral and antifungal activities against a wide range of pathogenic and non-pathogenic microorganisms. The antimicrobial properties of phytochemicals are being explored to utilize as feed additives in livestock production system (Patra 2012). One of the plant secondary metabolites which researchers recently focus on beneficial effects is saponins. Saponin-containing plants and their extracts by suppressing the bacteriolytic activity of rumen ciliate protozoa could enhance total microbial protein flow from the rumen. Saponins also have selective antibacterial effects which may prove useful in, for example, controlling starch digestion (Wallace et al 2002). Extract of licorice root can be used to manipulate rumen fermentation due to its saponin content. To date, there are limited research on the effect of plant phytochemicals on ruminal microbial fermentation at low pH. Most research studied the effects of plant phytochemicals on high-forage diets at pH > 6.2. The effects of plant extracts on ruminal microbial fermentation are pH-dependent.Microbial populations and ruminal fermentation conditions in cattle fed high-concentrate diets may be very different from cattle fed high-forage diets, because of the type of substrate being fermented or the resulting pH. Therefore, the search for additives that will help to replace ionophores in high concentrate diets needs to be tested in a high-concentrate and low-pH environment. It was hypothesized that extract of licorice root could exert some antimicrobial activities in low pH. Hence, the objective of this experiment was to study the effect of Licorice extract on in vitro gas production parameters, pH, volatile fatty acids (VFA), N- ammonia concentration and protozoa populations in diets containing different levels of concentrate to forage ratio.

Dried licorice extract obtained from Zagros Company (Kermanshah). Two experimental diets with different forage to concentrate ratio (40 to 60% or 60 to 40 %) were formulated. Licorice extract was added to diets at three levels, 1 or 2 and or 3 milligram /liter of incubation media. The saponin content of Licorice extract was 134.75 mg/g of dired licorice extract. For in vitro gas production, rumen fluid was taken from two rumen fistulated Kordish rams. For measuring gas production, 200 mg of experimental diets with four levels of licorice extract (0, 1, 2 and 3 mg/L incubation medium) were incubated with 40 ml of buffered-rumen fluid for 120 hours. The cumulative produced gas was recorded at different times of incubation and gas production parameters were fitted with Blummel et al equation (2003). Organic matter digestibility (OMD) was estimated after 24 hours of incubation (Menke and Steingass 1988). N-ammonia concentration was measured based Broderickand Kang (1980). Rumen protozoa were identified according to the method of Dehority (2003). After 24 incubation, 5 ml of buffered rumen fluid was pipetted into a screw-capped test tube containing 5 ml of formalin. Thereafter, two drops of brilliant green dye (2 g brilliant green and 2 ml glacial acetic diluted to 100 ml with distilled water) were added to the test tube, mixed thoroughly and allowed to stand overnight at room temperature. Total and differential counts of protozoa were made with five replications. In vitro rumen concentration of volatile fatty acids (VFA) was measured by gas chromatography (Ottenstein and Bartley 1971). All in vitro gas production trials were carried out in three runs. Rumen fermentation parameters, protozoa population and organic matter digestibility date were analyzed in a factorial arrangement based on a completely randomized design and gas production data were analyzed in a factorial arrangement based on a complete randomized block design using Proc GLM of SAS software. The differences among treatments were evaluated using Tukey adjustment when the overall F-test was P ≤ 0.05. Trends were declared when 0.05 < P ≤ 0.10.

The results showed that the interaction of diets and licorice extract levels were not significant on in vitro gas production, rate of gas production, estimated organic matter digestibility N-ammonia concentration, pH, total protozoa population, Entodinium, Epidinium, Diplodinium, Eudiplodinium and Isotricha population and in vitro ruminal concentrations of total VFA, acetate, propionate, butyrate, isobutyrate, valerate and isovalerate. The effect of diets on gas production (P≤0.05) and estimated OMD (p < 0.01) was significant and high concentrate diets in compare to low concentrate diets had greater gas production and greater estimated OMD. Inconsistent to these results, adding saponin to diet containing low level of concentrate decreased gas production (Yogianto et al 2014) and adding saponin to diet containing high level of concentrate increased gas production (Aazami et al 2013). Furthermore, high concentrate diet in compare to low concentrate diet had lower organic matter diegestability (Yogianto et al 2014). Diets containing high concentrate had lower acetate and greater isovalerate concentrations (p < 0.01). Addition of licorice extract reduced estimated OMD and total protozoa population and Entodinium population (p < 0.01) and tended to increase total VFA concentration (P=0.09) and to decrease isovalrate concentration (P=0.06).

Based on this study, it is concluded that different levels of licorice extract had no effect on fermentation parameters of diets containing different concentrate: forage ratios. Further studies are necessary to determine the effectiveness of saponin-containing plants extracts on rumen microbial fermentation and digestion kinetics.

Introduction:

The world average yield of essential oil is around 50000 ton/year which means that large amounts of apparently useless plant residues are produced. These residues do not have a specific commercial use, so it would be a very interesting alternative to provide feed for livestock.Agro-industrial co-products, can be effectively consumed by ruminant species. Since, many parts of Iran have arid and semi-arid climate, and there is feed shortage during the year, hence agro-industrial co-products can be used as animal feed. This experiment was aimed to study the chemical compositions and in vitro rumen fermentation of mint pulp and chicory pulp and experimental diets containing different levels of mint pulp and chicory pulp.

Materials and Methods:

 Fresh mint pulp and chicory pulp were collected from an agro industry processing factory. Chemical compositions (dry matter, neutral detergent fiber, acid detergent fiber, crude protein and ash), in vitro gas production parameters, total protozoa population and N-ammonia concentration of mint pulp and chicory pulp were measured. Each pulp separately included at three levels (10, 20 and 30 % of DM) in a basal diet. Experimental diets were: 1- Basal diet, 2- basal diet containing 10% chicory pulp, 3- basal diet containing 20% chicory pulp, 4- basal diet containing 30% chicory pulp, 5- basal diet containing 10% mint pulp, 6- basal diet containing 20% mint pulp and 7- basal diet containing 30% mint pulp. Basal diet formulated for ewes and contained 12.5 % CP and 2.20 Mcal metabolisable energy (ME) /Kg of diet. In vitro gas production parameters, total protozoa population and N-ammonia concentration of diets were measured and ME, short chain fatty acids (SCFA) and organic matter digestibility (OMD) were estimated. For in vitro gas production tests, the rumen fluid was taken from two rumen fistulated Kurdish rams. For measuring kinetic parameters of gas production, 200 mg of samples were incubated with 40 ml of buffered-rumen fluid for 120 hours. The cumulative produced gas was recorded at different times of incubation and gas production parameters were fitted to an exponential equation. For estimating ME, OMD and total VFA, 40 ml buffered rumen fluid was added to 200 mg of diets and incubated at 39 °C for 24 hours. After 24 hours of incubation, gas production recorded and ME, OMD and SCFA were estimated. Rumen protozoa population were identified after 24 hours incubation. Five ml of buffered rumen fluid was pipetted into a screw-capped test tube containing 5 ml of formalin. Thereafter, two drops of brilliant green dye (2 g brilliant green and 2 ml glacial acetic diluted to 100 ml with distilled water) were added to the test tube, mixed thoroughly and allowed to stand overnight at room temperature. Total and differential counts of protozoa were made with five replications.  All in vitro gas production trials were carried out in three runs. Data were analyzed based on a completely randomized design using Proc GLM of SAS software. The differences among treatments were evaluated using Tukey adjustment when the overall F-test was P ≤ 0.05. Trends were declared when 0.05 < P≤ 0.10. In addition, independent comparisons were done for diets containing mint pulp vs. diets containing chicory pulp.

Results and Discussion :

The results showed that mint pulp contains 105, 500 and 345 g/kg of CP, NDF and ADF respectively and chicory pulp contains 69.7, 610 and 465 g/kg of CP, NDF and ADF respectively. Mint pulp had greater lag phase than chicory pulp (p < 0.05) and potential of gas production did not differ between two pulps. Mint pulp had greater estimated ME, SCFA and OMD in compare to chicory pulp (p < 0.01). Potential and rate of gas production, N- ammonia concentration, total protozoa population, estimated ME, SCFA and OMD were not different among all experimental diets (P>0.05). The constant rate of gas production when half the potential of gas is produced was different among experimental diets (P=0.05), so that basal diet and diet containing 30 % of mint pulp had the highest and lowest value, respectively.

Conclusion:

 Considering the obtained data regarding the chemical compositions and gas production parameters, it is concluded that mint pulp and chicory pulp could be used as a part of forage portion in ruminant nutrition. More experiments are needed to study the inclusion of mint pulp and chicory pulp in diets of productive ruminants.

This objective of this experiment was to study the effect of diet containing high (40.7 %) non fibrous carbohydrates on some inflammatory and native immunity related genes expression in lactating Jersey cows. Seven lactating multiparous (2.5 ± 0.5) Jersey cows with 71 ± 3 days in milk and 28 ± 6.6 kg of average milk production were used. All cows received a control diet containing low (34.3 percentage of dry matter) non fibrous carbohydrates content for the first 14 days and then were transfered to a diet containing high (40.7 percentage of dry matter) non fibrous carbohydrates content forone week. Blood samples were collected on day 0 (After 14 days of feeding control diet) and days 4 and 7 after feeding high NFC diet. Relative gene expression of seven genes (IL1-β, TNF-α, MNDA, CD74, TLR2, SELECTIN, TGF1-β) were measured. The results showed that gene expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL1-β and TNF-α) and anti-inflammatory proteins (MNDA, D74, TLR2, SELECTIN, TGF1-β) was down regulated during feeding of high NFC diet (P<0.05). These data indicated that feeding a high non-fibrous carbohydrates diet caused inflammation and affected immunity system in lactating Jersey cows.

Diarrhea is one of the most common diseases in young dairy calves. This disease results in economic loss on dairy farms. So, fighting this disease needs more researches. Addition of high fiber byproduct to calf starter diet may have beneficial effect on preventing calf diarrhea. Furthermore, plane of milk or milk replacer during weaning could impact calf health. We hypothesized that partially replacing corn grain with high-fiber byproducts (sugar beet pulp) would decrease the incidence and severity of common calf diseases, diarrhea and pneumonia. As two diseases often occur in dairy calves and decreases dry matter intake and average daily gain. In addition, their occurrences, usually needs medication, consequently increase farm costs. Hence, the purpose of this research was to examine the effect of substituting corn grain as a source of starch with sugar beet pulp as a high fiber feed in starter diet and high plane of milk replacer nutrition on health status Holstein calves during pre-weaning period.

Forty-eight neonate calves (3-d old; 40.1 ± 0.84 kg BW) were assigned to four experimental groups, in a randomized completely design with 2 × 2 factorial arrangements. Experimental factors include two starter diets containing steam-flaked corn grain and sugar beet pulp and two plane of milk replacer nutrition including low plane (4 L milk) and high plane (8 L milk). So, the experimental groups including 1- calves received corn grain diet and low plane of milk replacer nutrition, 2- calves received corn grain diet and high plane of milk replacer nutrition, 3- calves received sugar beet pulp diet and low plane of milk replacer nutrition and 4- calves received sugar beet pulp diet and high plane of milk replacer nutrition. Calves rectum temperature was recorded daily and fecal score and general health signs were determined.

The results showed that calves fed diet containing beet pulp in comparison to calves fed diet containing corn grain had lower chance to develop pneumonia, but higher to diarrhea. Increasing plane of milk replacer nutrition had no effect on developing diarrhea, but calves fed high plane of milk replacer nutrition in comparison to calves fed low plane of milk replacer nutrition had higher chance to develop pneumonia. General appearance (score ≥2) and frequency and duration of diarrhea and pneumonia were not different between experimental groups, but calves received sugar beet pulp diet and low plane of milk replacer nutrition in comparison to other experimental groups experienced fewer days to high rectal temperature.

It is concluded that calves fed diet containing beet pulp due to higher diarrhea occurrence and duration, greater medical cost for pneumonia and less general appearance, had lower performance in comparison to calves fed diet containing corn grain. Milk replacer plane of nutrition had no effect on diarrhea.

This experiment was aimed to study the effect of Ferula assa foetida essential oil or Artemisia aucheri essential oil in diets containing different concentrate ratios (40 and 60% of DM) on in vitro fermentation kinetic and acidosis induction. Essential oils were added at 0.05% of diet DM. Gas production parameters, pH, N-ammonia and volatile fatty acids (VFA) concentrations and total protozoa population were measured and organic matter digestibility (OMD) was estimated. The effect of Ferula assa foetida and Artemisia aucheriessential oils on prevention of in vitro acidosis induction was measured. The results showed that the interaction of diets and essential oils had no significant effect on in vitro gas production parameters, N-ammonia concentration, pH, total VFA, acetate, propionate and valerate concentrations, total protozoa population, Entodinium, Diplodinium,and Ophryoscolex population. The interaction of diets and essential oils on estimated OMD was significant (92.64 vs. 83.1 %, p < /em><0.05), and diet containing low concentrate level without essential oils had the lowest estimated OMD. Essential oils reduced gas production, total protozoa population and N-ammonia concentration (p < /em><0.05). Results of Ferula and Artemisia essential oils on prevention of in vitro acidosis induction showed that both essential oils prevent acidosis induction. It was concluded that Ferula and Artemisia essential oils improved rumen fermentation.

In the present study the effect of vitamin C and copper injection in transition dairy cows on colostrum composition and serum metabolites of neonatal dairy calves was examined. Twenty multiparous (second parity, with 603.2 ± 53 kg average BW) and twenty multiparous (third and fourth parity, 669.1± 51 kg average BW) selected and divided to four balanced groups based on BW abd parity. Experimental treatments consisted of control (injection of 7 ml of NaCl % 0.9), Vitamin C (injection of 25 mg vitamin C solution/kg BW), Copper (injection of 75 mg copper solution/day) and Vitamin C-Copper (simultaneous injection of 25 mg vitamin C solution/ kg BW and 75 mg copper solution/day). Solutions were injected on d 20 and 40 before of expected calving. Copper injection increased red blood cells counts and serum concentration of copper (P < 0.05) compared with not injected groups. Colostrum fat, protein, lactose, solid not fat and immunoglobulin G concentrations, calf birth weight, serum concentration of vitamin C, superoxide dismutase, calcium, phosphorus and metabolites did not affected by simultaneous injections of vitamin C and copper solutions. Blood neutrophil count in calves of cows receiving simultaneous injection of vitamin C and copper solutions tended to increase (P = 0.06) compared with other groups. In general, simultaneous injection of vitamin C and copper during the dry period had no effect on colostrum composition and blood parameters in postpartum dairy cows, but may improve immunity system of their calves by increasing blood neutrophil concentration.

In this experiment, effects of injection of vitamin E (VE) and selenium (Se) solution and vitamin B12 (VB12) and iron (Fe) solution to transition dairy cows on colostrum quality and calves’ antioxidant capacity, concentrations of VE and VB12, Fe and Se, serum metabolites and blood cells were studied. Twentyprimiparous (607.09±60.26 kg of body weight) and twentymultiparous (712±55.54 kg of body weight) Holstein dairy cows were divided to 4 based on parity and body weight in a randomized completely block design. Experimental treatments consisted of 1) injection of 7 ml of NaCl % 0.9 (Control), 2) injection of 60 ml of VE and Se solution, 3) injection of 7 ml of VB12 and Fe solution and 4) injection of 60 ml of VE and Se solution with 7 ml VB12 and Fe solution. Solutions injected on 21 and 7 day prepartum and calves blood samples collected before and 24h after cholestrum feeding. Results indicated that treatments had no effect on calves’birth weight and colostrum concentrations of fat, protein, lactose and solid not fat, and immunoglobulinG. Serum concentrations of VE and B12, Se and Fe, serum activities of glutathione peroxidase, catalase, total antioxidant capacity and serum metabolites did not affected by the experimental treatments. Altogether, it can be concluded that injection of VE and Se solution and VB12 and Fe solution to transition dairy cows on days 21 and 7 prepartum had no effect on calves’immune system at first 24h of life.

Transition period is the period between 3 weeks before and 3 weeks after parturition which is one of the most critical physiological stage in dairy cows. Decreasing dry matter intake (DMI) and negative energy balance (NEB) potentially weakens immunity system and increases higher incidence of metabolic and infectious diseases such mastitis. High temperature in summer results in heat stress which subsequently reduce DMI and changes metabolic reaction in lactating dairy cows. Consumption of some vitamins and minerals could reduce negative effects of transition period and heat stress such as vitamin C and copper. The aim of this experiment was to study the effect of injection of vitamin C and copper to transition dairy cows on milk production and composition and body condition score (BCS), DMI in calving day and blood cells in summer season.

In this experiment twenty multiparous (second parity, with 603.18 ± 51 kg average body weight) and twenty multiparous (third and fourth parity, 669.05 ± 53 kg average body weight) Holstein cows were used in a completely randomized block design with 2*2 factorial arrangement. Experiment extended from 40 d before expected calving till 90 d after calving. Experimental treatments consisted of control (injection of 7 ml of NaCl % 0.9), Vitamin C (injection of 25 mg vitamin C solution/kg body weight), Copper (injection of 75 mg copper solution/day) and Vitamin C-Copper (simultaneous injection of 25 mg vitamin C solution/ kg body weight and 75 mg copper solution/day). Solutions were injected on 20 and 40 d before expected calving, calving day and 20 d after calving. Maximum temperature-humidity index during the experiment was between 68.27 to 78.20. Body condition score (BCS) changes, DMI in calving day, milk production and composition and blood cells were evaluated.

Results showed that BCS, DMI in calving day, milk production and composition on d 7, 30, 60 and 90 after calving and cell blood count except of neutrophil count were not influenced by simultaneous injection of vitamin C and copper solutions. Blood neutrophil count on d 20 before expected calving did not affected by injection of vitamin C while as vitamin C injection enhanced blood neutrophil count on calving day, 10, 20 and 30 d after calving (P<0.05). Copper solution injection in compare to lack of injection tended to less changes on BCS form calving day till 30 d after calving (P=0.06). Red blood cell counts on calving day in cows receiving copper solution injection were greater in compare to lack of injection (P<0.05).

Although, individual injection of vitamin C and copper to transition dairy cows resulted in some changes in blood cell counts but simultaneous injection of vitamin C and copper to heat loaded transition dairy cows had no considerable effect on milk composition and production of the first 90 d calving.

 Production of animal’s food is constrained by the climate changes.  Severe drought periods cause low availability of feed from natural pastures. Consequently, sheep and goats fed low quality forages. The unavailability of feed was worsened by the continuously increase of imported feed prices. The scarce availability of forage and fluctuant of concentrate prices encouraged the researchers to find new alternatives that have high energy and low cost (Yagoubi et al 2018). During the last decades, to overcome this problem in many countries, many nonconventional feeds such as shrubs and agro-industrial by-products were used. However, the distillation by-products of medicinal plants are used in animal nutrition. Optimum use of agro-industrial co-products in animal nutrition needs some special processing. Silage is an important way for preserving the nutrient of forage, which is a lactic fermentation process driven by epiphytic lactic acid bacteria. Once lactic acid bacteria ferments water-soluble carbohydrates into sufficient lactic acid in an anaerobic silo, low pH is achieved, the activity of undesired microbes is restrained, and the nutrients are well preserved (McDonald et al 1991). Cichorium intybus</em> commonly known as chicory, is fairly woody perennial herb, around 1 m in height with a fleshy taproot of up to 75 cm in length and large basal leaves. Chicory is cultivated for numerous applications such as “forage” chicory, to intensify herbage obtainability in perennial pastures for livestock (Street et al 2013). Mint, (genus Mentha</em>), genus of 25 species of fragrant herbs of the mint family (Lamiaceae) and are widely distributed throughout the temperate areas of the world and have naturalized in many places. Some species are commonly used in herbal medicine. Both of chicory and mint are used for distillation and their residues (pulp) could be used as animal feed. Mint pulp and chicory pulp have high moisture and low non fibrous carbohydrates contents, hence they are not suitable for ensiling. Therefore, it is better to use appropriate additives for ensiling these agro-industrial co-products. This experiment was aimed to study the effect of adding different levels of barley powder to mint pulp silage and chicory pulp silage on chemical compositions, silage quality traits, in vitro</em> gas production parameters, N-ammonia concentration, and protozoa population.

 Fresh mint pulp and chicory pulp were collected from an agro industry processing factory. Chemical compositions of mint pulp and chicory pulp were measured. Before ensiling, each pulp was chopped to particles with 3-4 cm length. Powdered barley grain was added to chicory pulp at three levels (10, 20, and 30 % (w/w)) and it was added to mint pulp at two levels (10 and 20 % (w/w)) and ensiled for 30 days. Chemical compositions (dry matter, neutral detergent fiber, acid detergent fiber, crude protein, and ash), gas production parameters, total protozoa population and N-ammonia concentration of experimental silages were measured. Silage quality traits including pH and buffering capacity (Jasaitis et al, 1987) were measured and fleig point of each silage was calculated (Kilic 1986). For in vitro</em> gas production tests, the rumen fluid was taken from two rumen fistulated Kordish rams. For measuring kinetic parameters of gas production, 200 mg of samples were incubated with 40 ml buffered-rumen fluid for 120 hours. The cumulative produced gas was recorded at different times of incubation and gas production parameters were fitted to an exponential equation (France et al 1993). For estimating metabolizable energy, organic matter digestibility and total volatile fatty acids, 40 ml buffered rumen fluid was added to 200 mg of silage samples and incubated at 39 °C for 24 hours. After 24 hours of incubation, gas production recorded and metabolizable energy, organic matter digestibility (Menke and Steingass 1988) and total volatile fatty acids (Makkar 2010) were estimated. N-ammonia concentration was measured based on Broderick and Kang (1980). Rumen protozoa were identified according to the method of Dehority (2003).  After 24 h incubation, 5 ml of buffered rumen fluid was pipetted into a screw-capped test tube containing 5 ml of formalin. Thereafter, two drops of brilliant green dye (2 g brilliant green and 2 ml glacial acetic diluted to 100 ml with distilled water) were added to the test tube, mixed thoroughly, and allowed to stand overnight at room temperature. Total and differential counts of protozoa were made with five replications.  All in vitro</em> gas production trials were carried out in three runs. Data were analyzed based on a completely randomized design using Proc GLM of SAS software. The differences among treatments were evaluated using Tukey adjustment, when the overall F-test was ≤ 0.05. Trends were declared when 0.05 < P≤ 0.10. In addition, independent comparisons were done for mint pulp silage vs. chicory pulp silages.

 The results showed that with increasing the barely level, dry matter increased and acid detergent fiber decreased in experimental silages and chicory pulp containing 10% of barley grain had the lowest acid detergent fiber content. Similar to the current results, adding different levels of wasted date to Mentha pulegium</em> pulp silage increased dry matter and decreased neutral detergent fiber (Eshaghi Maskoni and Dayani 2016). Average pH, buffering capacity, and fleig point of mint pulp silages and chicory pulp silages were 4.15, 41.62 Meq.1-1</sup>, 87.5 and 5.26, 46.52 Meq.1-1</sup> and 59, respectively. Gas production, constant rate of gas production when half the potential of gas is produced, lag time, and N-ammonia concentration did not differ among all experimental silages. Mint pulp silage with 20% of barley grain had the greatest gas production rate, estimated metabolizable energy content, total volatile fatty acids concentrations, and organic matter digestibility (P < 0.05) and total protozoa population (P = 0.06). Similar to the present experiment, adding wheat bran to citrus pulp silage increased gas production rate and organic matter digestibility (Kordi et al 2014).

 Considering the obtained data regarding the chemical compositions and in vitro</em> gas production parameters, it is concluded that among all experimental silages, mint pulp silage containing 20% of barley grain could be used as a good silage in ruminant nutrition. Furthermore, these co-product silages could be used as a part of forage portion in ruminant diets. More experiments are needed to study the inclusion of mint pulp silage and chicory pulp silage in diets of productive ruminants.

Conjugated linoleic acids contain a mixture of linoleic acid isomers. Dietary conjugated linoleic acid supplementation to ruminant diet affect their metabolism. Conjugated linoleic acid have many beneficial biological properties including the reduction in fat deposition and increasing lean tissue and feed efficiency in various animals. On the other hand, fast growing ruminants require sufficient amounts of essential amino acid in the small intestine. There is no information regarding response of growing ruminant to the interaction of rumen undegradable protein and rumen protected conjugated linoleic acid, hence this experiment was aimed to study the interaction of rumen undegradable protein and rumen protected conjugated linoleic acid on performance, protozoa population and in vitro gas production in growing goat kids.

Thirty-two Kurdish male and female kids (average body weight 13.06 ± 1.08 kg; 4 months age) were used in a randomized block design with a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement. The fattening period lasted for 100 days including a 20-d of adaptation. Animals were fed total mixed rations three times a day. All experimental diets contain 15% crude protein and 2.4 Mcal ME/kg DM. Rumen undegradable protein of feeds was measured by in situ method using two rumen fistulated rams. Experimental diets contain 25 and 35 percent of rumen undegradable protein without or with 1.5 percent of rumen protected conjugated linoleic acid. Dry matter intake, average daily gain, feed efficiency, protozoa population and in vitro gas production parameters were measured. For total protozoa populations counting and genera differentiation, samples of rumen liquor were collected three hours after morning meal by stomach tube on day 70 of experiment. Rumen liquor samples were taken from two rumen fistulated rams which were fed on maintenance level. These rumen samples were collected before morning meal.

The results showed that kids fed diet containing 35 percent rumen undegradable protein supplemented with rumen protected conjugated linoleic acid had the greatest average daily gain (112.72 g/day), feed efficiency (0.21) and the lowest dry matter intake (564.72 g/day). Ruminal fluid total protozoa population did not affected by dietary treatments. Diet containing 25 percent rumen undegradable protein without conjugated linoleic acid supplementation had the highest potential gas production (497.76 ml/g OM) and maximum gas production (11.80 ml/g OM) per hour. Diet containing 35 percent rumen undegradable protein with conjugated linoleic acid supplementation had the greatest gas production half life (35.69 h) and the lowest time to reach maximum gas ptoduction (5.27 h).

Overally, diet containing 35 percent rumen undegradable protein and 1.5 percent rumen protected conjugated linoleic acid supplementation improved growing goat kids performance.

This study was conducted to investigate the effect of grain sources (corn or barley) and alfalfa hay particle size (PS; fine or medium) on growth performance, blood parameters and ruminal fermentation of dairy calves. Thirty-two 3-d-old Holstein dairy calves (36.4 ± 2.0 kg of body weight) were used in a completely randomized design with 2 × 2 factorial arrangement. Experimental diets consisted of diet containing barley grain with fine alfalfa hay PS, barley grain with medium alfalfa hay PS, corn grain with fine alfalfa hay PS and corn grain with medium alfalfa hay PS. Starter feed intake was greater for calves fed corn than those fed barley during the pre- and post-weaning and overall periods. Calves fed corn had greater final body weight as well as overall average daily gain (ADG) than barley calves. However, alfalfa hay PS had no effect on starter intake and ADG. Hip and wither heights were greater in calves fed corn than those fed barley. Total volatile fatty acids concentrations increased and the molar proportion of acetate decreased in calves fed corn compared to those fed barley. These results showed no interactions between grain sources and alfalfa hay PS on calf performance; however, corn inclusion in starter diet improved the growth performance of Holstein calves during the transition from liquid to solid feed.

This experiment was aimed to study the effect of multi enzyme and bacterial inoculant on chemical composition and fermentation parameters of barley silage. Robovio multi enzyme was added at three levels, 0, 500 and 1000 mg/kg of barley dry matter (DM) and Prosage bacterial inoculant (a mixture of Lactobacillus buchneri,Lactobacillus plantarum, Enterococcus faecium and Propionibacterium acidophilus) was added at three levels, 0, 5 and 10 mg/kg of silage DM. Chemical composition, in vitro gas production, protozoa population and protein fractions of experimental silages were measured. Results showed that multi enzyme addition decreased NDF (P<0.05), pH, ash, B2 and C fractions (P<0.01) and increased A and B3 fractions (P<0.01) compared to the control. Barley silage containing 5 mg bacterial inoculant had greater DM, pH and B2 fraction (P<0.01) and lower C fraction compared to the control and silage containing 10 mg of bacterial inoculant. Protozoa population, N-ammonia concentration, estimated metabolizable energy, short chain fatty acids and in vitro organic matter digestibility were not affected (P>0.05).  Based on these results use of bacterial and multi enzyme additives for the preparation of wilted barley silage is not recommended due to their costs.

Zagros forests that are classified as semi-arid forests, approximately includes around 40 percent of the Iran forests. Dominant tree species of Zagros forests is Oak trees. Oak leaves are an inexpensive and available feed source for ruminant, in particular in low forage seasons. The main problem for the use of Oak leaves and fruit are their phenolic compounds and its negative effects on animal performance at high concentration. The negative effects of high concentration of tannin and phenolic compounds on ruminant performance dependent on the kind and concentration of phenolic compounds, diet composition, and animal species. There are evidence that supplementation of polyethylene glycol (PEG) at high concentration of phenolic compounds resulted in a decrease of the negative effect of phenolic compounds. In contrast, low concentration of phenolic compounds resulted in an improvement in daily gain, milk production, ovulation rate and a decrease in methane and ammonia production. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of different drying methods of oak leaves (Q. persica) on the concentration of phenolic components of dried leaves and PEG supplementation on in vitro protozoa population and total gas and methane production. This experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with a 4× 2 factorial arrangement of treatments to investigate the effects of dryings methods (sunshine, shadow, oven and freeze drying ) on the concentration of phenolic compounds of Oak leaves and effects of PEG supplementation on in vitro ruminal microbial fermentation of dried Oak leaves. An in vitro gas production technique was used to measure the effects of drying methods and PEG supplementation on total gas and methane production and protozoa abundance with fermentation of Oak leaves. Rumen content was obtained from two fistulated sheep (39±4.5 kg body weight) before morning feeding. The ruminal content was immediately strained through four layers of cheesecloth. Animals were fed twice daily with a 50:50 alfalfa hay: concentrate diet that formulated for maintenance requirements. In the laboratory, under anaerobic conditions, 37.5 mL of buffered rumen fluid (ratio of rumen fluid to buffer was 1:2) was added into 120 mL bottles containing 0.375 g of ground Oak leaves with (0.75g) or without PEG (12 replicates for each treatment in two runs). The buffer was prepared as proposed by McDougall. Bottles were sealed and placed in shaking water bath for 96 h at 38.6°C. Headspace gas pressure was recorded using a pressure transducer at 2, 4, 6, 9, 12, 24, 48, 72 and 96 h of the incubation. Methane production and protozoa population were determined at 24 h of incubation. The concentration of phenolic compounds, condensed and hydrolysable tannins were determined. Results of the present study showed that concentration of phenolic compounds, condensed and hydrolysable tannins affected by drying methods (P<0.01), but total tannins was not affected (P>0.01). In all experimental treatments, the protozoa population was increased by PEG supplementation (P<0.01). The highest and the lowest protozoa population were observed in freeze and oven drying methods, respectively (P<0.05). In all treatment (except for sunshine and oven drying) adding PEG resulted in a significantly increased (P<0.01) in the methane production after 24 h of incubation. It is notable that the highest and the lowest percentage of methane production were observed in freeze and oven dryings methods, respectively (P<0. 01). The effect of drying method on the gas production was not significant (P<0.05) and the addition of PEG resulted to numerically increase in gas (P>0.05). Although, gas production at 24h of incubation not affected by treatments, but results of this experiment demonstrated an increase in 96h gas production with PEG supplementation. The results of the present study demonstrated that the oven drying of oak leaves resulted in a further reduction in total phenolic compounds and hydrolysable tannins concentration and the most decrease in methane production due to microbial fermentation of oak leaves, relative to the control. In addition, it appears that PEG supplementation not recommendable method for decrease negative effects of tannins, because resulted in an increase in the methane production.

In this experiment, the effect of vitamin E (VE) and selenium (Se) combination and vitamin B12 (VB12) and iron (Fe) combination injection investigated on antioxidant status and health of transition dairy cows. Twenty heifers and 20 multiparous Holstein cows were divided to 4 balanced groups accoding to parity and BW. Experimental treatments consisted of 1) injection of 7 ml of NaCl % 0.9 (Control), 2) injection of 60 ml of VE and Se, 3) injection of 7 ml of VB12 and Fe and 4) injection of 60 ml of VE and Se with 7 ml VB12 and Fe. Solutions injectied on 21 and 7 day before calving and 7 d postpartum. Injection of VE and Se increased serum VE concentration and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) at calving day and day 7 and 14 postpartum, serum Se concentration and glutathione peroxidase activity at calving day and 14 day postpartum and blood neutrophils counts at calving day. Serum VB12 concentration at all sampling times, serum Fe concentration and catalase activity at calving day and serum TAC at calving day and day 7 and 14 postpartum were higher in cows received VB12 and Fe combination. The greatest incidence of retained placenta and mastitis were observed in control group. Overally, although, simultaneous injection of VE, Se, VB12 and Fe had no significant effectat on antioxidant status of transition dairy cows, but there is no observation of retained placenta and mastitis incidence in this group.

The interaction of fat supplementation (0 and 30 g/kg DM) and by-pass protein level (36 and 40% of dietary CP) was investigated on performance, skeletal measurements and blood metabolites of calf. Forty calves (aging 39 d) were used in a factorial design with four treatments. Experimental diets consisted of; 1) un-supplemented fat with low un-degradable protein (UF-LRUP), 2) supplemented fat with low un-degradable protein (SF-LRUP), 3) un-supplemented fat with high un-degradable protein (UF-HRUP), 4) supplemented fat with high un-degradable protein (SF-HRUP). The results show that supplementing fat in calves increased starter intake, gain as well as feed efficiency (P< 0.01). No performance result was affected with fat-RUP interaction. Considering the growth parameters, fat supplementation improved body length as well as chest width. Greater RUP also increased hip height. The interactions of fat-RUP did affect chest width and wither height as well. However fat supplementation did not affect blood metabolites, greater RUP reduced both glucose and insulin concentrations. In conclusion, fat supplementation may be recommendable after 4 weeks of age in calves and the results would be more favorable if this supplementation would accompanied with greater RUP level.

Milk consumption is one of the most important factors affecting growth and survival of calves in the pre-weaning period. Usually due to the higher cost of milk for feeding calves, it is recommended that the amount of milk intake be maintained at about 10% of body weight (4 liters per day), so that the calf is more encouraged to intake starter diet. In recent years, researchers have been looking for the best milking pattern to support the growth of calf more economically .The aim of this study was to compare the effect of two milk intake patterns, including conventional (4 kg / day) and free milk intake on the performance, skeletal growth, and blood metabolites of Holstein female calves. Thirty newborn Holstein female calves with average BW of 42.7 ± 2.2 kg were used in a completely randomize design. Experimental treatments included of conventional (4 Kg/d) and ad libitum milk intake. The experiment carried out in two periods: pre-weaning (day 1 to day 60) and post-weaning period (day 61 to day 120). Calves fed milk twice daily in the morning and the afternoon and had free access to starter diet and water. Starter intake was measured daily and ADG was calculated in a weekly basis. Skeletal parameters including body length, withers height and pin distance were taken at weaning (day 60) and end of the experiment (day 120). Blood metabolites including glucose, total protein, triglyceride and cholesterol were measured on days 30 and 60 of the study. The results showed that calves fed ad libitum milk intake had lower pre-weaning starter intake (P<0.01) and greater starter intake (P<0.01) during post-weaning and overall periods than those fed conventional milk intake. In calves fed ad libitum milk intake, average daily gain was higher (P<0.01) than the calves fed conventional milk intake during pre-weaning and overall periods but it was lower (P<0.01) during post-weaning period. Feed efficiency was higher during pre-weaning (P=0.05) and lower during pre-weaning period (P<0.01) in calves fed ad libitum than those fed conventional milk but it was insignificant in the overall period (P>0.05). Body weight of calves fed ad libitum milk intake was greater during pre-weaning, post-weaning and overall periods than those fed conventional milk intake (P<0.01). Calves fed ad libitum milk intake had greater (P<0.05) body length than those fed conventional milk intake. Plasma glucose and cholesterol concentrations were greater (P<0.05) in calves fed ad libitum milk intake than those fed conventional milk intake in day 30 of experiment. Plasma total protein and cholesterol concentrations were not affected by milk intake pattern (P>0.05). It is concluded that ad libitum milk intake resulted in better performance of dairy calves