دکتر مرتضی خانی پور

Burial is part of the spiritual and material culture of each nation, which has its own characteristics in each region and period. Since the burial method originates from the thoughts, ideas and culture of the society, by studying them, it is possible to reconstruct the process of cultural evolution of ancient societies. Studying burial practices and rituals has always been of the interest of researchers in the Sassanid field, and as a result of the researches, we see diversity in the burial practices of this period. Archaeological survey at the Bavanat River Basin, which took place in 2015, revealed evidence of two burial methods, including cairn burial or Khereft Khane, as well as pillar ossuary. Considering the variety of burial methods of this period in Fars, what were the burial methods of the Parthian and Sassanid eras in the Bavanat and what are the characteristics of the burial places? Therefore, the current research with a comparative-descriptive approach tries to explain the burials of the historical period of Bavanat in order to answer the raised questions. On top of the most of the Bavanat River basin Mountains, cairn burials have been identified that have a circular plan and are accumulate with stones of various dimensions with no mortar. Due to the wide distribution of cairn burials from Pakistan to southwestern Iran and the southern coasts of the Persian Gulf, different chronologies have been provided for such burials, however, according to the cultural materials obtained from other parts of Fars and comparing them to identification burials, this type of burial can be attributed to the Parthian and Sassanid periods. There are different opinions about the function of the second type of burial, pillar ossuary that according to the inscriptions obtained around of the city of Istakhr, they can be considered as having a burial function related to the Sassanid period that were identified at Pahneh Mil Fenjan and Cheraghkoshi sites.

So far, much research has been done on the Sassanid period, which is generally related to state centers and large cities of this period, and less attention has been paid to rural or temporary settlements that have been associated with these centers, the administrative, social, economic structures and settlement patterns interpretations requires attention to all of the sites in the region. Tol-e Gap Kenareh is located about ? km from Istakhr city. During the excavations in this area, deposits with Sassanid pottery were identified. Due to the low thickness of the deposits, the lack of architectural identification, the distribution of ash seems that this area was temporary site during the Sassanid period. Current study by introducing a temporary site of the Sassanid period, firstly is focused on the classification and typology of pottery obtained from excavation. to obtain the composition and structure of potteries, differences and similarities between them, kiln temperature, petrographic experiments on ? samples of The pottery was made, which resulted in the fact that all the pottery had a porphyry texture, and due to the presence of calcite in the samples, the temperature of the kiln was probably less than ??? degrees Celsius. Also, by studying the geology of the area and comparing the samples with other samples tested from other periods of the area, it can be said that pottery is indigenous and local production. For absolute dating, two animal bone specimens were tested in a laboratory that suggested date of ??? to ??? AD for the Sasanian period deposits in this site.

The first season of the survey was conducted in April and May 2015. It is attempted to determine the studied region according to natural geographical range without considering new political borders. To this end, Bavanat River Basin which is located in two central and Mazayjan parts of this county was fully investigated. Archeological research was carried out in a survey and intensive way to identify all sites and relics that reflect the activities of past human societies in the region. In this research, in addition of using all the information of historical texts and environmental studies, it was tried to conduct a field study in the basin of Bavanat River and by analyzing movable and immovable surface findings, the relationship between cultural sites and settlement patterns are investigated and meanwhile by comparing with the adjacent regions, the relationship between these cultural sites in different periods with the environment and geography of the region is investigated. In general, the most important goals of this archaeological research in 2015 are as the following: identifying all cultural works of different periods of the region; preparing archaeological maps of the studied region in the alternation of different cultural periods, studying and investigating the process of settlement changes in different periods, presenting the sequence of relative chronology of the region based on surface findings, measuring the effect of environment on the formation of settlements, explaining the cultural position of the studied region in cultural areas of country, recognizing regional and trans-regional interactions based on surface findings. During the conducted researches, 200 sites that dated from the Neolithic Period to the late Islamic era were registered. These sites include hills and ancient sites, historical castles, historical places of worship, mosque, bridge, cemetery, mill, petroglyph, ancient mines, and slag site. The oldest signs of settlement in this region were related to the Neolithic that this type of pottery was already identified in Marvast Plain, known as Mushki.

Bavanat county, in Fars province, is very important in terms of mining activities, most of the active mines of Fars region are located in this county. Although various studies have been done by geologists in recent years in order to develop new mines as well as the role of mines in sustainable development, but in terms of archeology and ancient mining has been neglected, the only exception is the work of Emami and Bamshad in introducing only two mines. In 2015, an archaeological survey was conducted on Mazayjan and Markazi district which resulted in the identification of 200 sites from Neolithic to late Islamic period, in which 4 mines and 4 slag sites were identified. Since the survey of Bavanat county has not been fully done, more sites can be recognized by a comprehensive survey in this county by focusing on the identification of mines and sites related to ancient metalworking. The role of the ancient mining in the formation of settlements during different periods can also be investigated. The study of the relationship between natural resources and how they are extracted, used, exchanged and traded by ancient peoples will be fundamental and vital in archaeological studies. Recognizing the process of the metalworking industry will lead to clarification of the relationship between different stages in this cycle and a better understanding of the socio-economic effects of this industry in the context of cultural and historical developments in the Bavanat region. The current study tries to identify the evidence related to the cycle of metalworking industry by focusing on the results of the archaeological fieldworks in the Mazayjan district. What are the extracted metals and how was the extraction cycle? It seems that most of these mines were used to extract copper and iron metals. In this regard, the questions are about the background of the metalworking and mining industry in this area, what kinds of metal were extracted in this area, and how was the cycle of extraction and smelting process in the region, that appears the most of the mines have been exploited for copper and iron ore. Although little surface evidence has been found to date, a few pottery finds indicate the history of the Islamic and possibly Sassanid period.

Past climate and environmental change is of longstanding and fundamental interest to archaeologists. a number of recent syntheses have examined the role of climate change and environmental modiication in understanding the rise, spread, and in some instances collapse of early complex societies. One of the most pronounced and abrupt climatic events of the Holocene occurred around 8200 years ago (Alley et al., 1997). Numerous proxy data as well as climate models indicate colder and more arid conditions throughout the Northern Hemisphere (Alley and Agustsdottir, 2005). The effects of the 8.2 ka event on societies in Southwest Asia are under discussion, and interpretations vary from collapse and abandonment of sites, large-scale migration, to continuation of occupation (Flohr et al. 2016). in an Iranian context, various scholars have highlighted the role of human-environment interactions in the expansion of Neolithic communities (e.g. Hole 1994, 1998). Also the eastward expansion of the Neolithic, into Central and Eastern Iran, and especially in the Southern Zagros province of Fars, may be contemporaneous with the 8.2 ka event. In the Southern Zagros, cultural changes (the more mobile ‘Mushki’ during the event, and ‘Jari’ farming villages after) may also be associated with the 8.2 ka event (Nishiaki, 2010, Weeks, 2013) but dates from other sites are crucially needed to ascertain if the difference between these two sites is generally applicable to the region. Here we review proxy evidence of climatic and environmental conditions to provide an independent background to societal development in Iran during the seventh millennium BC.

The materials of this study are the result of excavations in the Hormangan site and also the use of publications by other researchers in this field. An attempt is made to analyze the role of environmental factors on the formation of human settlements in the second half of the seventh millennium BC based on cultural materials obtained from excavation. The site is located on the west of Jeshnian village, situated on the southern basin of Bavanat River, on eastern Fars province in Iran. which was identified in 2015 and then it was excavated  2016. Three trenches were dug for excavation, During excavations in these trenches, two phases of the settlement were identified; in the old phase, the lack of architecture, as well as the existence of multiple ovens and ash dispersion, indicate a lack of sedentary and possibly nomadism. On these deposits, a stratiform architectural structure, including several rooms and spaces, was identified that walls were coated. According to the survey, one coal sample from an older phase showed a date about 6373-6236 B.C and coal samples that were taken from a later phase show a date between 6000-6200 B.C. According to the excavation results and C14 dating, it can be concluded that the Hormangan region had been occupied seasonally in about 6450/6350 B.C and later after 6200 B.C, had been occupied permanently by inhabitants with the same culture.

The earliest evidence agricultural village comes from Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPN) layers of Tepe Rahamat Abad, which is dated to late 8th or early 7th millennium BC (Azizi Kharanaghi et al. 2014). Cultivation and herding of goats/sheep had already begun in this period, however, Pottery Neolithic (PN) farmers came back to rely on hunting to large extent in following Mushki phase. Cultural findings indicate complex of social-economic changes from late half Seventh in Fars ragion. The stereography and architectural remains as well as geometrical stone tools, wild animals’ bones, Gazelle and equid bones, are all indicating the existence of a seasonal settlement based on hunting in Hormangan Site and Tol-e Mushki. These artifacts indicate tendency toward local stone mines whereas exploitation of obsidian is very limited. Regarding technology of stone tools, more extensive exploitation of geometrical stone tools may reflects significance of hunting at Hormangan Site and Mushki. The changes in subsistence are also visible on the stone tools, like the increase in geometric microlithes with the society’s transition into hunting style of livelihood. The emergence of geometrical arrows is not a local phenomenon, yet it is widespread all over the Middle East and it needs a trans-regional approach, considering global climatic factors (Nishiaki et al. 2015). bulk of equid bones from the site have been identified as onager, Equus hemionus, as well as Tal-e Mushki. The large number of gazelle bones (Gazella cf. subgutturosa; goitered gazelle) has been found at Hormangan, indicating that hunting activity on the dry- steppe environment must have played an important role for the habitants. Biometric data suggests that most of goat bones belong to domestic (Capra hircus). Considering that it had already been introduced to this region in early 7th millennium BC, the absence of sheep bone in Hormangan assemblage seems to be curious (Arai, unpublished). One explanation for the exclusive reliance on goat may attribute it to climatic reason: adaptation to drier condition during the 8.2 ka. Therefore, due to the changes in livelihoods and the absolute dates of the Hormangan and the Mushki(Nishiaki 2010), it issue could be resualt of climate change of 8.2 ka. Probably Neolithic communities of Fars, have adopted new strategies for livelihood such as hunting and gathering food instead of farming, That Hormangan site was provider a part of these livelihoods needs. This unclear economic phenomenon has been stopped at the beginning of the sixth millennium BC, when the economy based on agriculture was fully integrated. So, given the prevalence of Das blades for reaping as well as the reduction of wildlife and hunting in the 6th millennium, Jeri period can be considered as an economic reliant on agriculture.

Archaeological excavations in Fars, illustrate the consequences of climate change on the social and economic structures. It seems that due to climate change in the middle of the seventh millennium BCE and its improvement in 6200 BC, we are witnessing changes in subsistence patterns of this period. The cultural materials of the Mushki and Hormangan sites show that the Neolithic people of Fars in this period to adapt to the new conditions choose changes in subsistence and settlement patterns. During this period, due to the cold weather and agricultural constraints, the people to provide part of their subsistence needs, change their life based on agriculture and turn to the social structure based on hunting.

Fars Cultural sphere have different perspectives, including mountainous areas with a cold weather, central part with a temperate climate while the southern part which is limited by the northern Persian Gulf coasts; experiences warmer conditions. According to the archaeological importance of the region, the Bavanat River Basin was investigated aiming at (1) to identify all cultural monuments, (2) to provide the archaeological maps of the area, (3) to investigate the evolutionary process of settlements in different periods, and (4) to assess the environmental effects on the formation of settlements and to explain the cultural position of the study area. During the survey, 200 archaeological sites were identified to have been dated from the Neolithic period to the Late Islamic period. The oldest site is related to the Neolithic but until the Bakun era, there has been no settlement identified. Eight sites revealed Bakun painted potteries and seven sites showed potteries from Lapui period. Since from Banesh period there has been just one occupational site it seems that after Banesh the basin was abandoned until the Achaemenid period.

The period from 6300 until 5600 B.C in Fars region is known as Mushki and Jari phases. Since 1950s until recent years, lot of discussion have been evolved around the origins of these societies and their development. However, new cultural phase, known as Bashi, is proposed as the transition phase from Mushki to Jari. The stereography and architectural remains as well as geometrical stone tools, wild animals’ bones, particularly horses, are all indicating the existence of a seasonal settlement based on hunting in Tell-e Mushki, which is transformed into a sedentary settlement due to different type of architecture and a subsistence based on agriculture in Tell-e Jari B. A distinct cultural phenomenon is probably happened in Mushki phase which can be caused by sudden climate changes. It is suggested that the weather became cold and dry for centuries, until around 6200 B.C when the condition improved. In this regard, cultural changes are reflecting ups and downs in the climate situation, which have been recorded extensively in in Middle East archeological records. Furthermore, these climate changes have had direct influences on socioeconomical strategies of Neolithic societies in Fars. Lack of sheep bones in Tell-e Mushki on one side, and its abandonment in Tell-e jari A B on the other side, indicate a climate transmission from arid to more humid condition. However, the relationship between culture and climate is only one of the possible explanations for the cultural changes and obviously more studies are required. The majority of archeologists believe that severe climate changes in 8.2 Ka forced Neolithic societies to embrace new conditions. It is possible that some of them migrated to regions with more tolerable weather, while others found alternative survival methods for livelihood such as hunting or collecting foods instead of cultivating. Intermountain valleys in Fars region are required to be studied precisely and extensively in order to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of this period and to be able to analyze it. Following a survey by authors in 2015 on the Basin of Bavanat River in northeastern Fars, one of the most ancient settlements of this region, dates back to Neolithic era, was identified in Hormangan site and later in 2016 was excavated. The site is located on the west of Jeshnian village, situated on the southern basin of Bavanat River, on eastern Fars province in Iran. Hormangan is a small northern-southern directed site whose eastern side is destroyed because of gardening activities and the soul is dug up to 2 meters depth, accumulated on the slopes of hills on the northern side of the site. The cultural material from Hermangan site can increase our knowledge about the transition phase between Mushki (hunting societies) to Jari (agricultural societies), regarding the variety of ceramics, chronology and geography. Given the acquired information from this site, the technical and cultural aspects of Neolithic communities including ceramic productions, remote trades, livelihood patterns and manufacturing stone tools in this region are clearer to us. Regarding the climate changes during the seventh millennium B.C in Middle East, we observe alterations in settlement patterns of the period which is proved by the study of this period’s sites in Fars. The climate change forced the Neolithic societies to immigrate from Marvdasht to other intermountain valleys such as Hormangan site on the Basin of Bavanat River. According to the results of the excavations, there are two settlement phases in this site, the older phase is related to nomadic communities from 6350 to 6200 B.C and the latter with stratum architecture is associated with sedentary lifestyle of people who settled down here as a result of climate improvement.

Many years have passed from the first excavations on the northern coasts of Persian Gulf, and according to the conducted studies in this regard, major problems still exist in the chronology and identifying settlement periods. Besides, there is no clear description about the social, economic, political or religious life of prehistoric societies. Most of the archeological studies in this region were focused on the historical and Islamic cultural periods. Few prehistoric sites have been identified and studied in the Boushehr province and in general, the northern coast of the Persian Gulf archaeologically; in this regard, most of researches is related to the Elamite period and after that, the historical and Islamic periods. The area of Chahar Rustai located in the Genaveh county is one of the few prehistoric sites were identified and studied in this region. The first season of archeological excavations in this site was conducted in the June of 2013 to determine the stratigraphy and delimiting and its results shows that the site of Chahar Roustaei is a seasonal and temporary settlement dating back to the fifth millennium BC, so is compared with the middle Bakun culture in this part of the northern coast of the Persian Gulf. The site is located on 2 km northwest of the village with the same name, beside the tomb of Imamzadeh Amir-Almomenin, on the district of Hayat Davood, Gonaveh County. The geographical coordinates of the area are N. 29° 33’ 12.3” and E. 50° 45’ 44.5” and it covers an area of seven hectares. The site is precisely is located on the ridges of very hard and dense sands. The mean sea level on its highest point reaches to 30 meters, the majority of the site is leveled by farmers and is utilized as farm lands. The southern part of the site is covered by trees, locally known as Kur, recently planted by the ministry of Agriculture of Iran. The local access to dirt road exactly passes through the middle of the site and another road passes from its northern side and the mentioned tomb is on the right. According to the conducted excavations on this site as well as the distribution of pottery on its surface, Chahar Rustai is a seasonal and temporary settlement during the fifth millennium BC and probably is belonged to people immigrated from the cultural sphere of Fars to this region. Also, Chahar Rustai was excavated in order to obtain a more precise understanding about the prehistoric cultures existed on the northern coast of the Persian Gulf. Discovering the painted buff ware and comparing them with the ceramics of Tall-e Gap, Tall-e Bakun, Tol-e Bashi in the Kur river basin, Tall-e Nokhodi, Tall-e Rahman in the sivand river basin, Tall-e Nurabad in the Nurabad zone, Tall-e Mehr-ali in Iqlid and Tall-e Mashkarim in the district of Semirom show that Chahar-Rustai is one of the southern settlements of the culture which had been influenced by the dominating Bakun culture during the fifth millennium B.C.. Their ceramics clearly indicate that Chahar-Rustai settled during the middle Bakun period or the Gap period which can be dated between 4800 to 4500 B.C. During this excavation and throughout the detailed survey on their surrounding, no ceramic related to the more ancient or more recent period than middle Bakun was recovered. Given the its general characteristics and the distribution of ceramics, Chahar-Rustai site can be considered as a site settled by the nomads who were seasonal habitant of the area during the fifth millennium B.C. Furthermore, the marine products which were also discovered in other Bakun sites can definitely show a wide range of interactions among the coastal settlements including Chahar Rustai. Obviously, for gaining more accurate understanding about the prehistoric settlements and specially Bakun period, more comprehensive studies and surveys are required.

The number of Neolithic sites in Fars greatly increases in the pottery Neolithic period. How this pattern indicates the high capability of pottery Neolithic period of Fars is not clear yet. Even though a definite path to the growth of indices of Neolithic settlement patterns in Fars during the seventh and sixth millennium B.C. has been recommended which may indeed be true, for this period we cannot solely rely on Kur river basin and its other adjacent regions, rather the settlements which are also located in the valleys between mountains in Fars as well, even though most of the known pottery Neolithic sites are located in Kur river basin. Until now most of the analysis and research performed in the Fars Neolithic period had been focused on Kur river basin and Marvdasht plain in particular. Considering the fact that Fars has a variety of plains and valleys with different environmental features, in order to present a more comprehensive analysis for the Neolithic period of Fars, more surveys and research on the other regions are required. In light of the previous surveys and excavations, it seems that the Neolithic cultures of southern Fars have been different, therefore regions similar to Fasa, Darab or the southern basin of Qareagaj river have had a different pottery culture from Kur river basin and northern Fars. In this article, cultures from the northern half of Fars which have similarities with Kur river basin shall be discussed. Considering the existing problems in Fars cultural zone, Bavnat river went under survey, during which the Hormangan site was discovered and afterward excavated. The excavation in the above-mentioned site was important for several reasons, first because a site outside of Marvdasht plain was going to be excavated, second, this site was located in Fars altitude with a nearly cold weather and with an altitude of 2360 m, which made it the highest Fars Neolithic site in terms of elevation. Third, Hormangan’s simultaneity with Mushki period is a great assistance for the two points of this period’s chronology and livelihood economy in Mushki period. In this work, the existing challenges within the chronology of Fars Neolithic period shall be presented after which an introduction and a presentation of the results from Hormangan excavation and also an absolute chronology of the site is discussed. Finally using a relative comparison between cultural material and absolute chronology from Neolithic sites, Fars chronology is evaluated. In the following article, the goal is to began with absolute chronology of the site and other Neolithic sites located in the northern half of Fars and also, a comparison of cultural materials and understanding cultural characteristics to reach a better understanding regarding the neolithic zone of Fars region. In order to date the Hormangan site, 8 charcoal, and animal bone samples were sent to the University of Tokyo laboratory where the results showed that the zone had been used for settlement from 6373 B.C. which lasted up to 5950 B.C. Taking into account the similarities of Bashi materials with Hormangan, Rahmat Abad, and Mushki regions and the absolute chronology of these regions, consideration of Bashi phase does not seem logical, therefore by comparing the cultural materials and absolute chronology done in other regions, a sequence chronology including Rahmat Abad (7500–7000 B.C), formative Mushki (7000–6400 B.C), Mushki (6400–6000 B.C), Jari (6000–5600 B.C) and Shams Abad (5600–5200 B.C) for the neolithic period of Fars can be presented.

After years of excavations and surveys in Kur River Basin and in Fars province, there are still major problems and huge unanswered questions in the local chronological sequence. Archaeological excavations and surveys showed that the number of settlements was greatly reduced after the Tall-i Malyan urban phase (Middle Banesh phase, late 4th and early 3rd millennia B.C.) whereas few evidences illustrate the subsequent Late Banesh phase. There are discontinuities in the chronological sequences of most of the sites excavated up to now between middle Banesh and Kaftari epochs. Considering archaeological surveys, soundings and C14 dating, it seems that the Kur River Basin consequently faced a remarkable population reduction in the middle of the 3rd millennium B.C. Sumner proposed to consider the mid-3rd millennium B.C. as a gap between late Banesh (2800-2600 B.C.) and early Kaftari (2200-1900 B.C.) phases, suggesting that during this interval, most of the inhabitants of the Kur River Basin turned to pastoralism, explaining the sparsely occupation of this territory. This view relied on evidences from ABC trench cultural layers in Tall-i Malyan, on C14 absolute dating, on the discontinuity between Banesh and Kaftari surveyed settlements and on an obvious recess in the pottery sequence in the Kur River Basin. Recently published evidences from trench H5 and new excavation in H1s sounding in Tall-i Malyan, however slightly modified this scenario and pointed on a certain continuity between Banesh and Kaftari periods in Tall-i Malyan. Regarding the current archaeological information, it seems necessary to excavate sites with both Banesh and Kaftari periods to explore the 3rd millennium B.C. in Fars. Through visits and surveys in the Kur River Basin, the authors decided to open trenches in Toll-e Gap Kenareh in order to get more information about this crucial period. Toll-e Gap Kenareh is located 5 Km southwestward of Persepolis and 3 Km northeastward of Marvdasht in the Kur River Basin. Covering around 0.5 hectare, it is situated 1629 m above the sea level and is 4 m higher than the current surrounding plain. Toll-e Gap was firstly excavated by L. Vanden Berghe in the 1950s for two days while Alizadeh presented the site as belonging to Shogha, Iron Age III, Achaemenid, Sasanian, and Islamic periods. The first season of excavation at Toll-e Gap was conducted in Sept/Oct 2012 to identify the cultural stratified sequence of the site and to get relative and absolute dating for the 3rd millennium B.C. Fars. Two trenches (A and B) were excavated during this season of excavation on the east and west sides of the site and reached the virgin soil at 5.3 m depth. Recovered materials include potsherds, bone fragments, metal, stone, glass objects, tokens, and so on. According to the recovered potsherds and comparing them to the other sites of the Kur River Basin, it can be inferred that the chronological sequence found in Toll-e Gap Kenareh displays early Islamic, Sasanian, early Kaftari, and Banesh (early, middle, and late?) periods. Toll-e Gap Kenareh open then new horizons in the archaeology of Fars during the 3rd millennium B.C, above all for the transition between the well-known Banesh and Kaftari periods. Above Kaftari Period layers, there is a Sasanian Period settlement, which shows that this site has been used temporarily during the Sasanian Period. The more recent artifacts in this site belong to the 9th and 10th centuries A.D., and as the site is close to Estakhr, its function could have been related to this city.

According to the Geographical and environmental situation, the Kur River Basin have been occupied from the Middle Paleolithic to the modern times. Of the ancient cultures of the region, the 3rd Millennium B.C cultures contemporary with Proto-Elemite and the Elemite Dynasties have less known. Despite to the importance of this span of time, there is not clear understanding on the transition from the proto-Elemite /Banesh to Early Elemite/Kaftari in Fars yet. Of the reasons of such understanding are the rarity of the excavation, incoherency of the undertaken excavations, limited published reports and narrow use of the archaeological science; in addition, according to the some parameters such as environmental factors, the location of the settlements are relocated all the time as it is difficult to find a site containing the whole prehistoric sequence of Fars. Some archaeologists such as Sumner have believed in a gap in between of given periods in Fars. Sumner and Miller however, have recently believed that there are limit amount of population were settled in Malyan at this span of time. The excavation at Tol-e Gap-e Kenareh as a site containing the 3rd Millennium B.C cultures of Fars cultural sequence i.e. Banesh, transition to Kaftari and Early Kaftari can shed light better understanding of given cultures. This paper is based on the excavation at Tol-e Gap-e Kenareh, and trying to open a discussion on the 3rd Millennium B.C. cultures of Fras.