رسول یاعلی

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic neurological disorder that commonly affects individuals over the age of 20 and can impair motor control, including walking and balance disorders. Fatigue is a significant symptom among MS patients that can harm their quality of life and ability to perform daily activities. Regarding the deficiencies of posture control and the effect of fatigue on the quality of life of MS patients, the impact of fatigue caused by physical exercise on the posture control of these patients is worthy of consideration. So, this study aimed to investigate how physical exercise–induced fatigue affects MS patient's postural control.

This quasi–experimental study followed a pretest–posttest design with a control group. The statistical population comprised MS patients in Tehran City, Iran. The samples from among qualified volunteers were purposefully included in the study and were divided into control (20 people) and MS patients (18 people). The study's inclusion criteria for the study patients were as follows: individuals must have a confirmed diagnosis of MS by a qualified neurologist and fall within the age range of 20 to 50 years. Additionally, participants must have an Expanded Disability Status Scale score below 4.5, be able to stand for at least 30 seconds and walk independently for a minimum of 10 meters without the assistance of any devices. They should also be free of any cardiovascular or musculoskeletal disorders, not currently taking any medication that affects balance or fatigue, and without vision, hearing, or mental impairment. Lastly, they must possess the ability to perform active muscle contraction. The exclusion criterion was non–participation and lack of cooperation during the sessions. The indices of anteroposterior and mediolateral sway and sway area were obtained using the Kistler force ‎plate device to evaluate postural control in two stages: before and after fatigue due to physical exercise.‎ The Bruce modified fatigue protocol was used on a Sportec ‎treadmill to induce fatigue. The data analysis used descriptive statistical indicators such as mean and standard ‎deviation. In the inferential statistic, we conducted a multivariate analysis of the covariance test to ‎compare the effect of fatigue on the sway indices, anteroposterior, and mediolateral of the center of pressure (COP) in two groups: patients with MS and control. ‎The data were analyzed using SPSS software version 28, and the significance level of the tests was considered 0.05.

The results of this study showed significant differences between the control and MS patients in the displacement of COP in the anteroposterior and mediolateral directions (p<0.001) and also in the sway area (p=0.003).

Based on the study results, a tiring movement task harms the postural control of people with MS, and it seems that fatigue caused by physical exercise leads to an increase in the displacement of the COP in MS patients compared to healthy people.

Nonlinear Pedagogy is an exploratory approach to teaching and learning Physical Education that can be potentially effective to help children acquire competencies. Intrinsic motivation a function of psychological needs should also be considered as an important goal for any program to develop skills and expertise. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare effectiveness linear and nonlinear pedagogy on intrinsic motivation of children.

The statistical population of this study included all girl children of 8/2±0/7 years old primary schools located in Babolsar city. Two schools were randomly selected from these schools. Each school had 2 classes in the second grade of primary school. The number of students was at school A(20,22) and at school B(23,25) that was randomly found a class from each school to linear pedagogy and another class to nonlinear pedagogy and they participated in an interventional program for 6 weeks, twice a week to training manipulation motor skills. Four students were selected from each class to participate in three interviews sessions. Data collection tools were Deci & Ryan's intrinsic motivation questionnaire (2008) and the interview. To analyze the research data was used Mix-ANOVA analysis test and a stable comparative analysis.

Findings of the questionnaire showed that there is a significant difference between the two groups of linear and nonlinear pedagogy in the Intensive motivation of the children and children with the nonlinear pedagogy had higher intensive motivation than linear pedagogy. Also students and teachers interviews showed that the nonlinear Pedagogy approach created a learning environment that facilitated perceived competence, autonomy, and relatedness, thus potentially enhancing intrinsic motivation and enjoyment during practice.

It is recommended teachers and educators by using new nonlinear pedagogy approach, Helping to education of skills along with creating more motivational behaviors for children in educational settings.

The purpose of the research was to investigate the effect of visual and skill training on visual and performance skills, retention and transfer of Badminton backhand short service. 20 female students were randomly divided into two groups of 10 combined and skill. Depending on their type of training, the groups performed visual and skill training for 6 weeks. Before and after training, visual and performance tests, retention and transfer of backhand short service were done by the participants. For data analysis, t-test and mixed ANOVA analysis were used with a significant level of 0.05. The data analysis indicated that there was a significant difference between groups in visual skills. The combined group had a significant improvement in performance, retention, and transfer of the service. Also, checking the interactive effect of time and type of training showed that the combined group was more advanced than the skill group. The results of this study show the combined effects of vision and sports more than the individual training of vision and sports, and according to the results of the study, it is suggested that visual training is included as a supplementary training program in the Badminton field exercise.

Finding the best teaching method is a current issue of interest to behavioural scientists. This study aims to investigate the effect of teaching games for understanding (TGFU) and linearity on motor proficiency and perceived motor competence in futsal games. The study's population included children aged 9-12 years in Ahvaz (Mean age = 10.7, SD = 1.41). Two groups of subjects (20 participants in each group) engaged in futsal skill training using Teaching Games for Understanding (TGFU) and linear methods. Perceived motor competence was evaluated using the Intrinsic Motivation Questionnaire, and actual motor competence was assessed with the Bruininks-Oseretsky test. The training sessions lasted for two months, with 16 sessions, each lasting one and a half hours. Data were analyzed using an independent t-test in SPSS version 20 statistical software. The results of an independent t-test revealed significant differences in motor proficiency (t(1.38) = -3.52, p = 0.00) and perceived motor competence (t (1.38) = -2.44, p = 0.02) between the TGFU and linear groups, with TGFU showing higher effectiveness. The study's findings demonstrate the effectiveness of teaching games for understanding (TGFU) methods over linear methods, which can be implemented in schools and kindergartens.

Introduction and goal: The present of this study was to determine the effectiveness of training on gaze behavior and performance in pressure situation, based on mental toughness.

For this purpose, 6 out of 16 hockey goalkeepers were selected. The research consisted of pre-test, intervention, post-test, and pressure situation. Participants in the test phase received 25 hockey drag flick from a distance of 9 meters. The intervention was performed for three consecutive days (9 blocks of 40 attempts, 25 in total). Participants entered the playing field after receiving video feedback on their quiet eye status and comparing it with the quiet eye of the elite goalkeeper and practiced kicking according to the instructions given. The mobile eye tracking device was used to investigate the gaze behavior. Performance was recorded by checklists and a GoPro camera. Data were analyzed using compound variance analysis 3 (measurement time) × 2 (mental toughness level) to evaluate intervention on gaze behavior and performance and Bonferroni post hoc test.

The results showed that quiet eye training had a positive effect on gaze behavior and performance improvement in both normal and pressure situation. But there was no significant difference between the groups (high and low mental toughness).

According to the results of this study, it can be concluded that exercise affects the gaze behaviors and improved gaze behavior results in better performance under normal and pressure conditions. Higher mental toughness affects performance and the person with the highest mental toughness struggles to reach the goal, the best way to travel under any circumstances. Therefore, optimum gaze behavior may be influenced by high mental toughness, and this requires further research.

 Studies have shown that individual constraints such as IQ positively affect the efficacy of motor development interventions, but the role of genes in this field has not been studied so far. Therefore, the present study aims to assess the effect of ACE genotypes on the effectiveness of the Sports, Play, and Active Recreation for Kids (SPARK) program in developing fundamental movement skills.

 The study population consists all boys aged 6-8 years (Mean age: 7.4±1.45 years) in Tehran (district 4), Iran, of whom 50 were selected as samples by a simple random sampling method. The instrument was Ulrich’s gross motor development test III. The DNA extraction was also done from the saliva of participants. After determining genotypes II (n=11), ID (n=25), DD (n=14), pre-test assessment was conducted. Then, the groups received the SPARK motor intervention for 8 weeks at 24 sessions. Finally, post-test assessment was performed, and the collected data were analyzed in SPSS software using analysis of covariance.

 The effect of different ACE genotypes on the effectiveness of the SPARK program on children’s locomotor skills was significant (P=0.005), but it was not significant regarding ball skills (P=0.14). Children with genotype DD showed more improvement in locomotor skills than those with genotype II. 

 Our results support Newell’s theory that individual constraints play a role in learning and development. In this study, the ACE gene, as an individual constraint, has an effective role in the effectiveness of the SPARK program in improving locomotor skills in children.

How the process of acquiring and learning new motor skills can be enhanced is one of the basic questions in theoretical and applied movement science, rehabilitation and sport. The Differential Learning (DL) approach is mainly characterized by taking advantage, for the purpose of learning, of fluctuations that occur, without movement repetitions and without corrections during the skill acquisition process. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of Differential Learning (DL) and Contextual Interference (CI) on the Retention and Transfer of Badminton backhand short serve. Prior to the implementation of the protocol, all participants of the pre-test were taken. Then, each group of research performed for 8 sessions according to the type of training. One day after the completion of the practice protocol, of all participants were taken the tests of Retention and Transfer. The analysis t-test indicated that there was a significant difference between the groups DL and CI in tests Retention and Transfer (p= 0.00). In fact, the results of the research show the effectiveness of the DL approach on the Retention and Transfer of Badminton backhand short serve. Based on the results of the research, the conclusion is that the DL approach is useful for learning skills, and can discover adaptive solutions by creating oscillations in the individual and helped to improve and learning skills.

A proper educational approach with a solid theoretical foundation is essential for learning sports skills. This study aimed to determine the effect of a differential education approach external and internal attention instructions on indoor football shoot learning and transfer. The present study was conducted with a quasi-experimental strategy, sequential design, and available sampling. The number of samples in the present study was 24, randomly divided into three groups. First, all participants were pre-tested using the indoor football shoot test. Then, according to the relevant instructions, individuals randomly performed their exercises in each group for 12 weeks, two sessions per week and 20 minutes per session. After 12 weeks, the immediate retention test was taken immediately after the exercises. The delayed retention and transfer were taken one week after the end of the exercise using the shooting skill test. A one-way ANOVA test was used to analyze the data in SPSS software version 23 with a significance level of 0.05. There was a significant difference between differential training methods with external attention instruction, differential training with internal attention instruction and differential without instruction with attention methods on motor learning and transfer in indoor football shooting skills. This study showed the effectiveness of the differential learning approach with external attention instructions on retention and transfer of indoor football shoot skills. Research results can be used in order to design exercises for learning motor skills better and more effectively.

The aim of this study was to Compare Effectiveness motor proficiency of the nutritional status on men in different age groups ((children, adolescents and young adults)), respectively. Statistical Society study was for children all student ages 10-7 years, for adolescents all student ages 15-12 years and for Youth of all students 20-18 of Tehran University except the student physical education. The sample was 90 people in each of the age groups, the four elementary schools and four high schools in Tehran and Tehran University male students were chosen by cluster sampling. This study was a descriptive survey and comparison measurement was test of instruments anthropometric and Brvnynks- Oseretsky. The results showed that among malnutrition, moderate nutrition and proper nutrition in adolescence and adulthood motor proficiency was not statistically different ages but among children ages motor proficiency were significantly different. In addition, no significant difference between motor proficiency age groups. It seems due to the impact of nutritional status on motor proficiency, and this issue was observed in this study at an early age; therefore, children are the most vulnerable in this context and considering the nutritional status of children is very important.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of dominant and non-dominant mental practice on Badminton's backhand short service. A total of 20 girls aged 12-14 years old from the city of Goldasht were selected and purposefully selected and randomly divided into two groups. Both training groups trained in 30 sessions, in which 50 performance were made to visualize the skill of the service mentally. In order to compare the two groups, the mixed ANOVA and Bonferron's post hoc test were used.  Comparing the between-group, the results showed that mental practice with dominant hands was not significant in dynamic environment and interactive exercise, but subjective exercise was significantly (P <0.05). No significant results were obtained in the within group comparison, but given the low effectiveness, it seems that the difference between the two groups is very close to meaning. Research findings suggest that coaches and teachers of interactive practice can benefit from less-than-lateral mental practice to improve the performance of their athletes in training sessions.

The aim of this study was the effect of educational intervention on gait kinematic characteristics in motor in children 3-5 years old. Twenty-four children aged 3-5 years old were randomly divided into two groups (intervention group: 12 per, and control group: 12 per). The intervention group practiced for six weeks and two sessions a week. The range of motion of the hip, knee and ankle joints was measured on the sagittal plane at the moment the heel contact the ground and the moment the toe off from the ground, before and after the intervention. Paired t-test showed that educational intervention had a significant effect on the change of lower extremity kinematic variables at the level of α = 0.05 (In the intervention group: at the moment of heel contact with the ground, the amount of dorsiflexion of the ankle increased by 35.5% after the intervention, knee flexion decreased by 20.62% and hip flexion decreased by 20%. Also, at the moment of toe off from the ground, the amount of plantar flexion of the ankle increased by 37.73% after the intervention, knee flexion decreased by 16.74% and hip extension increased by 37.61%). Based on the results of ANOVA analysis, there was a significant difference between the exercise and control groups in the kinematic variables of walking. The results showed that a linear pedagogy course is suitable for changing the kinematic pattern of walking in children 3-5 years old.

Creativity is one of the most important variables that guarantees a person's athletic success, It is also important for continued physical activity in beginners. The purpose of this study was the role of motor learning teaching strategies on team creativity of beginner soccer’s. The participants in this study were 66 male students from Tehran universities who participated in this study voluntarily. All of them were beginners, which was confirmed by an expert opinion. Participants were randomly assigned to linear, nonlinear, and differential teaching groups and practiced two sessions each week for three months. Each group was trained by their own instructor. After the interventions, each group played a game and the participants' creativity was examined by analyzing the film and with the opinions of two experts. The results have been reported descriptively due to the rarity of the identified actions. The findings show that the team creativity in the group that practiced with non-linear pedagogy was greater than the other two groups, and the team creativity in group which practiced in the differential group was greater than the linear group. Based on the ecological dynamics perspective, these results suggest the use of environmental manipulation and task to enhance team creativity due to exploration and help solve movement challenges, and are recommended for educators, teachers, and physical education instructors. Of course, using this method requires the expertise and creativity of the instructor.

Researchers have shown that visual motor skills can be improved by practicing visual skills for optimal motor performance during sport. The aim of this research was to study the effect of 6 visual training on vision functions skilled players in Badminton sport. The participants of this research were skilled badminton players from Esfahan province. 60 persons (range of age: of 25-30) were divided into two group: experimental group and control group randomly. After the presence of the two groups in pre-test, the experimental group participated in visual training and control group in watching badminton match movie, both for six weeks and three sessions per week and in the last session, both groups participated in post-test. These tests included close-far chart test (hart chart), two rows Saccades test, and test of bringing closes a pencil (prism test), coordination of eye-hand test, and the time of vision reaction test. The data was analyzed by ANCOVA analyses test (p≤0.05).The results indicated that in some visual function (included Visual reaction time, Tracking and Visual concentration   in experimental group was better than control group.

The complexity of educational practices and the issue of individual differences has created many challenges for motor skills educators. So the purpose of this study was to compare effectiveness linear and nonlinear pedagogy on manipulation motor skills performance of children. The population of this study included all girl children of 8 years old primary schools in Babolsar city that 55 children of them were selected using accessible sampling method and participated for 4 weeks, twice a week, in interventional program involving linear pedagogy (performing prescriptive and repetitive exercises) and nonlinear pedagogy (manipulation of task constraints including equipment and instructions) to performance improvement of manipulation motor skills. Data collection tools included quantitative or product-oriented tests adjusted of overarm throwing accuracy, Moore-christine shot test (modified for children) and basketball spiral dribble test. The data were analyzed using Mix-ANOVA analysis test. The results showed that there was a significant difference between the two nonlinear and linear pedagogy groups in throwing accuracy skills, spiral dribbling skill and kicking skill (P<0/001) and Children with nonlinear pedagogy had a higher level of performance in manipulation motor skills than those with linear pedagogy. As a result, it is recommended that teachers and educators help children to achieve better performance outcomes in a dynamic learning environment by applying a nonlinear pedagogy approach to teaching Fundamental motor skills to children.

Creative behavior is invaluable in everyday life as well as in athletic performance. This study aimed to the effect of differential education approach and attention instructions on motor creativity.

The number of samples in the present study was 24, which were randomly divided into 3 groups (differential learning with external instruction - differential learning with internal instruction - differential control of control). Each group randomly performed their pieces of training for 12 weeks, two sessions per week, and 20 minutes per session according to the relevant instructions (external attention: attention to the upper right or left corner of the goal, internal attention: attention to the foot contact with the ball and control: no attention instructions). After 12 weeks, immediately after training, small-sided play for 20 minutes, motor creativity, shoot, dribble and futsal skills were measured in all participants. A one-way ANOVA test was used to analyze the data in SPSS software version 23 with a significance level of 0.05.

There was a significant difference between external differential, internal differential and control differential methods of motor creativity in dribble, pass and shoot futsal skills.

This study showed the effectiveness of differential learning approach on motor creativity in futsal. Research results can be used to better and more effectively design exercises to nurture more creative players and teach creativity factors such as fluency, originality, and flexibility.

In this paper, the local indigenous games have been studied on motor proficiency of 10-13-year-old boys with high and low emotional intelligence. A total of 30 children with a mean age of (11.46 ± 1.04) were selected from the schools of District 7 of Tehran via purposeful method, and based on the general score of emotional intelligence from Shoot et al. The participants were divided into two groups of 15 people with high and low emotional intelligence, and there was no significant difference in motor proficiency between the two groups. To assess emotional intelligence, the Shoot et al. questionnaire and for motor proficiency Bruninx-Oseretsky test were used. Exercise interventions were performed for 8 weeks in a gym in the same way for both groups. These exercises were three sessions per week with each session lasting 90 minutes, consisting of 20 minutes of warm-up, 15 minutes to cool down at the end, and the remaining 55 minutes in between for game interventions. The results of independent t-test revealed a significant difference between the two groups after the intervention. Specifically, the children with a high emotional intelligence had greater Motor Proficiency. Hence, based on the advantage of the chosen motor games, use of this practice in schools can be helpful. Also, sports educators can consider emotional intelligence as an effective variable in supporting children towards high levels of athletic performance.

Finding the best teaching method is an issue that has attracted the attention of many researchers, researchers in behavioral sciences and sports today.. In order to discuss this, the aim of this study was to investigate the effect of TGFU, combination, and SE on individual and team creativity in comparison with the traditional method in futsal games. The statistical population of this study was all children aged 9-12 years in Ahvaz (M age= 10.74 and SD= 1.42). The interventions were designed for futsal skills, so four groups of Participants (20 people in each group) practiced SE, TGFU, combination and linear methods. The test of team and individual creativity was performed using film analysis. Exercises were presented for two months in 16 sessions, one and a half hours each. The results showed that for individual creativity in the post-test, differences between groups were not significant for inappropriate actions but significant for appropriate actions. Also for creative and original actions as well as team creativity TGFU, combination, SE and linear groups had the most progress, respectively. In all variables, the difference between TGFU and linear (p <0.05) and combination and linear (p <0.05) was significant. The results of this study showed the effectiveness of the TFGU and combined methods compared to the linear method, which can be used in schools and kindergartens..

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of motor- cognitive dual task on executive functions in overweight elderly. Participants were 30 elderly (65-80 years M=72) of Tehran city. After the pretest (response inhibiation, working memory, problem solving) they were taken in two groups, single task group (n=15) and dual task group (n=15 (for 12 sessions. After the last session, the posttest were taken. Repeated measure of ANOVA were used to analyze the data. Results showed the participants` executive functions improved from pre-test to post-test and follow up. But the interactive effect of the two factors of group and time is not significant. Therefore, the two training methods have the same effect on the executive function of overweight elderly people.

The identification of the factors affecting the physical performance and development of childrenchr('39')s motor skills can be of great importance in participating in physical activities, preventing overweight and obesity, as well as identifying and guiding the top talented children in sport. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effect of different ACE (I/D) and ACTN-3 (R/X) genotypes on some factors of physical fitness and motor skill performance in children.

The statistical population of this study included 6-8-year-old school children in Tehran, Iran. In total, 50 cases were selected randomly using the cluster-sampling method. The data were collected using the Physical Fitness Test, Test of Gross Motor Development-Third Edition (TGMD-3), and PCR for the determination of ACE and ACTN-3 polymorphism. Furthermore, a one-way analysis of variance and independent t-test were used to analyze the study data. A p-value less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

The results showed that children carrying allele D of ACE gene, (DD or ID genotype), compared to those with II genotype (P<0.05), and the cases carrying the allele R of ACTN-3 gene (RR or RX genotype), compared to those with XX genotype (P<0.05) had more muscular strength in hand and foot, as well as higher levels of locomotor skills. However, no significant difference was observed regarding the performance of ball motor skills (P>0.05).

According to the results of the study, it can be said that the children carrying DD or ID genotype of ACE and RR or RX genotype of ACTN-3 had a higher level of physical development and consequently higher levels of locomotor skill performance. Therefore, if they are provided with desirable environmental conditions, they will be able to do sport skills accompanied by higher levels of performance.

Focus of attention instruction has a great influence on performance and learning. The purpose of this study was to examine the predicted constrained action hypothesis in badminton backhand serv. 30 women student participants from physical education classes of University of Kharazmi are selected as sample. Participants are tested in probe task at different stage of serve after identifying base of reaction time, and level of attention demanding of different parts was measured. Then participants divided into two groups (internal and external focus of attention) and they are tested with their specific instruction again. The results revealed that first stage of serve has the most attention need (p<0/001), but there is not any difference between two groups and different serve stage in the effect of focus of attention type. Accordance with these results the constrained action hypothesis at discrete skills is not confirmed.

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of self-controlled environment, supporting basic psychological needs on motor learning, and to investigate the mediating role of intrinsic motivation.

80 right-handed veterinary medicine students of Science & Research branch of Islamic Azad University in Tehran volunteers, after random division into 5 groups of 16 (Autonomy need support; Autonomy & Competence needs support; Autonomy & Relatedness needs support; Autonomy & Competence & Relatedness needs support; Control), participated in Pre-test of 5 trials, Acquisition phase of 60 trails, and Retention test of 10 trails (the following day), in which scores and errors of blindfolded throwing with non-dominant hand were recorded. The Intrinsic Motivation Inventory was completed after exercise. The analysis of data performed via Two-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA, One-Way ANOVA, and PROCESS macro.

The results showed that in acquisition, Autonomy&Competence group was superior (p<0/001), but in the retention, Autonomy&Competence&Relatedness group was superior and similar to Autonomy & Relatedness group (p<0/001). In Intrinsic Motivation and subscales of Interest/Enjoyment and Perceived Competence, Autonomy&Competence&Relatedness group was superior (p<0/001), though in subscale of Effort/Importance, Autonomy&Competence&Relatedness group was superior and similar to Autonomy&Competence and Autonomy&Relatedness groups (p<0/001). The mediating role of Intrinsic Motivation was confirmed (p<0.05).

Emotional intelligence, as a psychological factor influences the evaluation of specific situations occurring during the exercise and the effective decision making related to them. Thus, the present study was conducted to compare the effect of different soccer trainings on the emotional intelligence of the young football players Twenty-two young male football players with a mean age of 14.5 years old were divided into two groups (11players per each group) (the group trained with traditional games and the group trained with small-sided games) to participate in 18 training sessions appropriate to their group. Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (Bradberry & Greaves, 2003) was used to measure emotional intelligence in the pretest and posttest. The results of ANCOVA showed no significant difference between the two groups, but the results of the dependent t-test showed a significant difference in the post-test compared to the pretest in the experimental group. Results of this study showed that exercise training improves emotional intelligence in the football players, but small-sided games further facilitate this, due to their nature

Based on ecological dynamic theory and its nonlinear approach, a learner should be encouraged to explore various movement solutions to determine the most suitable for them. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of a Nonlinear Pedagogy approach in the learning of low badminton backhand serve. A total of fourteen subjects were divided randomly into two groups. The Linear approach based on a traditional viewpoint and the Nonlinear Pedagogy approach based on the ecological dynamics theory were planned and conducted. Performance accuracy scores, movement criterion scores and kinematic data were measured. The findings showed that although the accuracy of the performance and the movement criterion between the two groups were insignificant, the nonlinear group showed more clusters in both the post-test and the retention, which indicates the presence of degeneracy. The results of this study indicate that although the nonlinear pedagogy approach is effective in achieving the results of the task and creating different movement patterns that are suitable to the characteristics of the learners, the emergence of specific patterns depend on factors such as the nature of the task, as well as the purpose and motivation of the learner. Therefore, the precise design of the affordances can provide better results that are more appropriate for the learner and the task.

Purpose of this study was to compare the effects of Indigenous-Local play and selective motor interventions on the Self-esteem of obese girls in pre-school ages in Tehran. 30 obese girls were selected in a targeted way and divided into control groups, selective motion interventions and local native games. World Health Organization charts for obesity and Cooper-Smith questioner for Self-esteem were used. Experimental groups practiced two sessions in week and per session one hour for nine weeks. The results of covariance analysis and LSD showed. Intervention in experimental groups had a significant effect on the Self-esteem compared to the control group. But compared to each other, the difference was not significant. Local native games and selective motor interventions be effective in reducing obesity problem as self-esteem. This confirms the role of physical activity; it is about reducing the problems of obese people. Of course, to find the best practice, it's best to compare different interventions.

Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is an atypical motor development with an undiscovered etiology, which has recently attracted extensive attention. A significant challenge regarding motor development in children with DCD is identifying the constraints that affect the optimization of interventions, i.e., designed for motor development. The present study attempted to compare the effects of group and individual games on the development of fundamental movement skills in children with DCD.

This was a quasi–experimental research with a pretest–posttest and a control group design. The statistical population of the present study included all females aged 9–10 years with DCD in Tehran City, Iran, in 2018. The DCD was diagnosed using the second edition of the movement assessment battery (2001) for children followed by a psychiatrist’s approval. A total of 20 students with DCD were selected through convenience sampling method and were randomly divided into two groups, as follows: group games and individual games (10 children per group). The study groups performed the selected exercises during eighteen 60–minute sessions. The games played by the two groups were the same, and the only difference concerned the organization of the games. To design the games, several activities and games were extracted through exploring relevant literature (Peens et al., 2006). The selected activities and games were then included in the process of 18 daily lesson plans and were approved by 10 physical education professors. Prior to conducting the research, these games were tested on 12 children with DCD that were excluded from the research sample. Moreover, the games were completely consistent with the research objectives in terms of severity, duration, and time. The study subjects were evaluated before and after conducting the exercises by the Test of Gross Motor Development–Second Edition (TGMD–2). This test was presented by Ulrich (2000) for the qualitative assessment of gross motor skills. The TGMD–2 measures the locomotion and manipulation skills in subtests. The total score obtained in both subtests is considered as the value for fundamental movement skills. The validity and reliability of this tool have been approved by Soltanian et al., (2013) in Iran. Based on this study, the coefficient of internal consistency and reliability for locomotion and manipulation score, as well as the total score were reported as 78%, 74%, and 80%, respectively. Data analysis was performed in SPSS using repeated–measures Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) at a significance level of 0.05.

The obtained data were normalized using Shapiro–Wilk test; then, the scores of the pretest and posttest was compared between the study groups. Due to the heterogeneity of the data between the two groups, using the analysis of covariance was impossible. Therefore, to investigate the effect of the exercises, a 2 (groups) × 2 (pretest and posttest phases) repeated–measures ANOVA was performed through which the time factor was repeatedly measured. The collected findings revealed that group and individual game approaches had a significant effect on motor development in the studied children (p<0.001). The superior effect of group games in comparison with individual games (p=0.012) was confirmed considering the higher level of progress made by the group games research group (mean±SD: from 66.90±8.14 to 73.20±3.32), compared to the individual games study group (mean±SD: from 64.80±6.56 to 66.10±5.42).

Considering the advantages of group games and the results of this research study, motor development interventions in children with DCD could lead to more favorable outcomes in the development of fundamental movement skills; this goal is achieved if using group methods. Such practice proved effectiveness in preparing an individual for social life and teamwork that is encountered in everyday life. Social relationships could also be improved through these types of games.